Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

• Pollution is the addition of a substance or an agent to an environment by human activity, at a rate greater than that at which it can be rendered harmless by the environment and which has an appreciable effect on the organism within it.

• Basically… contamination of nature which affects living organisms.

• Substances exposed to the atmosphere and littering by humans.

POINT SOURCE POLLUTION (Coming from a direct source)

• The pollutants are coming from clear identifiable sources: sewage into a river.

• Easier to see who is polluting.

• Easier to manage and monitor.
  

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION (NPS)

• Release of pollutants from numerous sources: car fumes, etc.

• Almost impossible to detect the origins of the pollutants.

• Rain can collect various forms of nitrates and

Collapse

Collapse is the reduction in wood size during drying before fiber saturation. It manifests as a corrugated surface due to crushed wood tissues and sometimes internal lens-shaped cracks. Collapse occurs in some wood species when dried slowly at high temperatures or humidity, or during rapid outdoor drying. It's more intense on radial cut faces than tangential ones. This defect causes significant wood loss during surfacing and reduces mechanical strength. Tangential shrinkage is greater than radial shrinkage, often separating wood tissues parallel to the weaker radial parenchyma cells. The pith is also susceptible to damage, developing cracks and crevices. In eucalyptus, avoid sawing the pith to achieve good quality dried products.

Drying... Continue reading "Wood Defects and Degradation" »

Understanding the Deep Ocean: Vessels and Instruments

Oceanographic Vessels

Conshelf

Conshelf: A diver who lives and operates both inside and outside a submarine refuge for an extended period.

Alvin

Alvin: A manned deep-ocean research submersible owned by the United States Navy and operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) in Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

Aluminaut

Aluminaut: The world's first aluminum submarine. This experimental vessel, an 80-ton, 15.5-meter (51 ft) manned deep-ocean research submersible, was built by Reynolds Metals Company to promote the utility of aluminum.

Essential Oceanographic Instruments

Water Bottle

Water Bottle: A container used to hold water, liquids, or other beverages for consumption.

Reversing Thermometer

Reversing

Disaster Preparedness and Environmental Challenges

Preparing for Volcanic Eruptions

We already know what a volcano and a volcanic eruption are, as well as the Volcanic Explosive Index (VEI) and the damage they can cause. But what should we do? How do we protect ourselves?

It is clear that a volcanic eruption is a phenomenon we cannot avoid, and it is difficult to predict when it will happen. Therefore, we must be prepared for what might occur, especially if we live near major volcanoes, such as Mount St. Helens or the Tambora volcano.

Apart from taking preventative measures, it is our duty to be informed.

Essential Emergency Kits

The first thing we need, whatever the disaster, is an emergency kit. We may have to survive without external help after... Continue reading "Global Risks: Volcano Safety, Environmental Action, and Nuclear Waste Management" »

Core Energy and Power Concepts

Transform (verb): To change or alter the appearance or form of something.

Source: Origin.

Resource: A supply or source of material that can be used.

Heat: A form of energy generated by being hot.

Supply: The total amount of a specific good or service that is available to consumers.

Release (verb): To emit, give off, or discharge.

Absorb (verb): To take in or consume.

Electrical Grid and Distribution

Power station: Power stations generate electric current in very large quantities to supply the national grid.

National grid: A system of special wires that take electricity from power stations (places where electricity is made) to all parts of a country.

Substation: Substations are an important part of the national grid. They... Continue reading "Essential Energy and Electricity Infrastructure Terms" »

Coastal Sediment Transport Processes

The sea transports the load or sediment it obtains through erosion in the same ways that a river does. There are four primary methods of transportation:

• Suspension: Fine sediment is carried within the water, making it look muddy or murky.
• Solution: Dissolved material is carried along in solution, making it invisible to the naked eye.
• Traction: Larger pebbles and cobbles are rolled along the sea bed by the force of the water.
• Saltation: Small pebbles are moved when one pebble hits another, causing it to bounce in a chain reaction.

Understanding Longshore Drift

As well as being moved up and down a beach, sediment can also be moved along it if the incoming waves are driven by onshore winds at an oblique angle to the... Continue reading "Coastal Sediment Transport and Marine Deposition" »

Natural Disasters

• Avalanche

• Drought

  Drought is the unusual dryness of the soil caused by levels of precipitation.

• Earthquake

  An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy.

• Famine

• Flood

  A flood is an overflow of water that covers the earth.

• Hurricane

• Landslide

• Tornado

  A tornado is a column of violent rotating air.

• Tsunami

  A tsunami consists of huge waves caused by an underwater earthquake or a volcanic eruption.

• Volcano

  Volcanoes can cause widespread destruction and consequent disaster in various ways.

• Wildfire

Weather

• Blizzard

• Cloudy

• Damp

• Dry

• Foggy

• Hailstones

• Heatwave

• Icy

• Rainy

• Snowy

• Stormy

• Sunny

• Thunder and Lightning

• Warm

• Wet

• Windy

Preindustrial Societies

Hunter-Gatherer Societies

Hunting, fishing, and gathering fruits and roots were essential for survival in hunter-gatherer societies. These societies had very little impact on the environment.

Agricultural Societies

Agricultural societies formed larger groups. The agricultural revolution transformed the way resources were obtained through:

• Plant species cultivation
• Hydraulic work (reservoirs, dykes, terraces, canals, and channels)

The impact on the environment was relatively small.

Industrial Societies

Industrial Revolution

From the 18th to the 20th century, a new economic model emerged based on the mass production of goods using enormous amounts of energy. This led to serious environmental problems, including the over-exploitation... Continue reading "Environmental Issues and Sustainable Solutions" »

Convergent Boundaries and Plate Tectonics

Convergent boundaries are where the edges of two plates are moving towards each other. The lithosphere is destroyed.

Three Types of Convergent Boundaries

1. Converging Continental and Oceanic Plates

At boundaries where a continental plate and an oceanic plate collide, a phenomenon called subduction takes place; in other words, the denser oceanic plate slides under the continental plate. The subducting plate sinks into the mantle and forms a trench. This sinking can be detected as the lithosphere rubs against the rocks in the mantle, causing earthquakes at many points of the Benioff zone, which is the surface of the sinking plate. The force of the plates raises the continental crust, creating a boundary... Continue reading "Convergent Plate Boundaries and Cellular Genetics" »