Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Storing Wind and Solar Power

Water reservoirs at different altitudes can be used to store energy generated from wind and solar power.

Solar Power Generation

Solar power involves several methods:

• Using solar cells (photovoltaics) to convert sunlight directly into electricity.
• Using sunlight hitting solar thermal panels to heat water or air.
• Using sunlight hitting a parabolic mirror to heat water, producing steam.
• Using sunlight entering windows for passive solar heating of a building.

It would be advantageous to place solar panels in regions with the highest solar radiation. Many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built, mainly in Europe.

Agricultural Biomass Energy

Biomass production involves using garbage or other renewable resources, such... Continue reading "Renewable Energy Sources: Solar, Biomass, and Geothermal Power" »

The Evolution and Impact of Cooling Technology

Before engineers learned how to cool air, life was very different. Most foodstuffs could not be transported long distances. In many countries, it was impossible to work during the heat of the day, and many areas were uninhabitable during the summer months. Some ancient peoples designed cooling methods for foods and spaces.

Early Refrigeration Innovations

The inventor of refrigeration was Jacob Perkins; his greatest invention was the first vapor-compression refrigeration system. He obtained a patent for this vapor-compression system of cooling. Perkins often doesn't get credit for his important invention because he didn't develop it commercially. This was later done by Scottish printer James Harrison.... Continue reading "Engineering's Impact: Cooling Technology and Sustainable Future" »

Environmental Threats Facing Humanity

Irresponsible human actions are contributing to the emergence of serious problems that threaten humanity, such as:

• The process of desertification
• The destruction of forests
• The deterioration of the ozone layer
• The enhanced greenhouse effect
• Air and water pollution

Air Pollution: Major Sources and Impact

The largest air polluters are oil refineries and power plants. Cities, with their heating systems and vehicles, release carbon dioxide. In our country, approximately 150 pounds of pollutants per person are emitted into the atmosphere annually. The greatest pollution is recorded in urban areas of Madrid, Barcelona, and Bilbao. Acid rain is one of the three most serious environmental problems in Europe and America.... Continue reading "Environmental Threats: Acid Rain, Deforestation, Pollution" »

Earth's Surface Processes: Weathering and Erosion

Whenever rocks are exposed at the Earth's surface, they are acted upon by external forces.

Understanding External Geological Forces

There are two distinct external processes that shape the Earth's surface:

• Weathering: The breakdown of rocks in situ (in their original place).
• Erosion: The further destruction, transport, and deposition of weathered rock material.

Types of Weathering

There are three main types of weathering.

Mechanical (Physical) Weathering

Mechanical weathering occurs when exposed rocks are broken up by physical forces without any change in their chemical composition.

Key Mechanisms of Mechanical Weathering

• Unloading: The expansion and fracturing of high-pressure rock when exposed to the

River Terraces: Formation & Importance

River terraces are relatively flat, step-like landforms found along river valleys. They are formed by the river depositing sediment on its banks, particularly where the gradient decreases, reducing the river's capacity to carry sediment. A series of terraces resemble broad steps or rungs on a ladder along the valley sides.

Importance of River Terraces

The flat surfaces of river terraces are valuable for agriculture and provide stable ground suitable for building cities, roads, and railways. They represent past levels of the riverbed and valley floor.

River Deltas: Formation & Types

What is a River Delta?

A river delta is a landform created at the mouth of a river where it flows into a body of water (... Continue reading "River Terraces and Delta Formations" »

Earth's Internal Structure and Plate Tectonics

Seismic Wave Behavior at Different Depths

P-waves (primary waves) and S-waves (secondary waves) are seismic waves that travel through the Earth's interior. At a depth of 100 km, P-waves have a speed of 6 km/s. This speed increases to 8 km/s as the material becomes more rigid. The speed then decreases at the Mohorovičić discontinuity. After 300 km, the speed begins to rise again until it reaches a point where it increases slowly because the material is less rigid. The Repetti discontinuity separates the lower mantle from the upper mantle. Continuing on, P-waves reach a point where their speed plunges at a depth of over 3,000 km. This is where S-waves diminish completely, as the material is more... Continue reading "Earth's Layers, Seismic Waves, and the Wilson Cycle" »

Chapter 6 - Glaciers

Glacier Formation

Describe how glaciers form (using the terms zone of accumulation and zone of ablation).

Zone of Accumulation

• The area where a glacier forms.
• More snow falls in winter than melts in summer.

Zone of Wastage

• The area where there is a net loss due to melting.

Zone of Fracture

• Uppermost 50 meters.
• Crevasses form in brittle ice in this zone.

What part of the glacier behaves brittly? Plastically?

Types of Glacial Movements

• Plastic flow
• Slipping along the ground below 50 meters

Brittly in the picture

Valley Glaciers vs. Continental Glaciers

What are valley glaciers? Continental glaciers? Examples of each.

1. Valley, or alpine glaciers – form in mountainous areas
2. Ice sheets, or continental glaciers
   • Large scale e.g., Over Greenland

Chapter 8 – Earthquakes

What is the elastic rebound theory? Is it possible for energy building up in the lithosphere to be released in a sequence of earthquakes?

Rocks “spring back” – a phenomenon called elastic rebound

Energy is released in a sequence of earthquakes (one earthquake can trigger slip on a nearby fault)

What is a seismic body wave, and what characterizes each of the two types of body waves (i.e. type of motion, velocity)?

1. Primary(P) waves(spring)=push&pull motion, greatest velocity, arrive first, travel solid, liquid, gases.
2. Secondary(S) waves (rope)=up&down motion, slower velocity, arrive after P at seismograph, travel only solid.

What is a seismic surface wave, and what characterizes each of the two types of surface

Adipocere Formation Over Time

On Earth, over time, adipocere undergoes certain changes that allow us to distinguish between recent (or young) adipocere and old adipocere. Recent adipocere may show little uniformity and thickness on portions of foreign tissues (remains of muscles, tendons, or ligaments). Old adipocere is hard, dry, and somewhat brittle; its structure is more homogeneous.

Conditions for Saponification

Environmental Conditions

Circumstances that favor adipocere formation include:

1. When the corpse has been submerged in water or in an area of low current.
2. When the corpse has been buried in damp clay soil.
3. When many bodies have been buried in contact with each other: the bodies in the lower layers tend to saponify to a greater or lesser

1 - The Deciduous Forest

It consists of tall trees with straight trunks, smooth bark, and large leaves that fall in autumn. This forest type has relatively few species, often forming large masses. The most common features are Carballo oak and beech. In the understory, ferns and mosses thrive in a somber mood created by the treetops.

2 - The Heath and Grasslands

The Landa is a dense shrubland, whose height can be low or reach 4 feet. Its most abundant species are heather, gorse, and broom. The heath is considered a form of deciduous forest degradation or supraforestal vegetation. It is often used for animal bedding and then as fertilizer.

The meadows are herbaceous vegetation occupying large tracts of land with ocean views.

The Vegetation of the