Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Geology

The Isabel II System Crisis (1856-1868)

The last stage was dominated by the return of the Moderate Party to power and its alternation with the Liberal Union. The Moderate Party had gained international prestige with colonial pretensions. Internally, the action of the government was very authoritarian, acting outside of the courts and exercising strong repression against political groups. Opposition to the regime was growing, and new political groups emerged, such as the Democrats, who defended universal suffrage, and the Republicans, who advocated the abolition of the monarchy.

The Revolution of 1868

The political and economic crisis triggered the first revolution against the monarchy. The Unionists, Progressives, and Democrats joined forces to... Continue reading "Spain's Political Turmoil: 1856-1898" »

Nuclear Fission Energy

Nuclear fission energy is obtained from the separation, or fission, of heavy atoms of radioactive minerals, such as uranium. This energy source was learned about during the Second World War, following the dropping of atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Since then, it began to be used for peaceful purposes and its use became widespread following the oil crisis of 1973. The main producing countries are the USA, France, and Japan.

Hydropower

Hydropower is obtained from water dammed by a barrier in artificial watercourses. Its moderate use dates back to the early twentieth century. The main producing countries are Canada, the USA, Brazil, and China.

Alternative Energy Sources

Alternative energy sources... Continue reading "Nuclear Fission, Hydropower, and Alternative Energy" »

Plains and the Ebro Valley

In the late primary period, along with Catalonia, a sea paneled. In the secondary period, there was much sedimentation. The Pyrenean stage lifted the edges, especially to the north (Pyrenees), which became a gulf, and a rise in the lake's eastern hills occurred in the Miocene epoch. In the Quaternary period, it emptied through a crack in the Mastership.

Levante Coastal Formations

Low cost of sea and river silting.

Guadalquivir Valley Formation

Similar to the Ebro Valley in form and unifying factors. The primary mountains rose in the secondary area, which was covered with water in the Betic tertiary period. The tilting of the peninsula emptied the area on the Gulf of Cadiz, where the contributions of the river converge,... Continue reading "Geological Formations: Plains, Valleys, and Mountain Ranges" »

Natural Resources in Catalonia

Natural resources are goods from nature that society uses to meet human needs. Key resources include:

• Mineral Resources: Catalonia is relatively poor in minerals like coal, oil, and potassium salt.
• Industrial Rocks: Good production of materials such as sand and rocks for construction (bricks, tiles, etc.).
• Soil: Vulnerable to destruction, used for biomass production and forage. It plays a crucial role in water infiltration, regulating the hydrological regime, and providing habitat for wildlife.
• Vegetation: Forest stands exhibit significant variation and are an important ecological and scenic resource. Few mature forests remain; those that are exploited still possess valuable flora and fauna.
• Water (L'aigua): An indispensable

Weather: Refers to the various phenomena occurring in the atmosphere of Earth or another planet.

Climate: Represents the set of mean values of weather conditions that characterize a region. These average values are obtained by collecting weather information over a sufficiently long period.

When discussing the world, an area or region, or a particular locality, we refer to global climate, zonal, regional, or local climate (microclimate), respectively.

Factors Modifying Climate

• Latitude: The angular distance between the Equator and a point on the planet. Latitude is measured in degrees (°), between 0 and 90, and can be represented as positive (North) or negative (South).
• Altitude: The vertical distance from a given origin, typically the average sea

Internal Structure of the Earth

• Continental Crust
• Mohorovicic Discontinuity
• Upper Mantle
• Transition Zone
• Lower Mantle
• Outer Core
• Inner Core

Soil Layers and Composition

• Core: Nickel and Iron
• Mesosphere: Silicon, Iron, and Magnesium
• Crust: Silicon and Magnesium

Rocks

Igneous Rocks

Formed from melted minerals, typically found in the Earth's core. They have an inlaid and laminated glass appearance. Examples include granite and sharpening stone.

Sedimentary Rocks

Formed at the bottom of lakes and oceans. They appear as a mass of different substances in layers. An example is gypsum.

Metamorphic Rocks

Formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks due to changes in temperature and humidity. They appear as attached blades that separate easily. Examples include slate and marble.... Continue reading "Earth's Internal Structure, Rocks, and Soil Composition" »

Elevation and Relief

Elevation: Gradient of a point on the Earth's surface relative to sea level.

Close witnesses are residual reliefs formed by harder rocks such as limestone.

Countryside and Scale

Countryside: Gently rolling lowlands crisscrossed by rivers.

Scale: The average ratio between the map's length and the corresponding length in reality.

Geological Structures

Faults: A terrestrial crust rupture with fractured block separation.

Latitude and Longitude

Latitude: The angular distance from any point of land to the Equator.

Longitude: The angular distance from any point on Earth to the 0° meridian.

Plains and Meridians

Plain: A plain high above sea level.

Meridians: Semi-circles ranging from pole to pole. The most important is Greenwich.

Solids and

1. The Greenhouse Effect

Causes

• Burning of fossil fuels
• Deforestation, hindering CO2 absorption by plants
• Gas emissions from industries and vehicles

Consequences

• Potential global temperature increase of 1.5 to 4.5°C
• Significant impact on regional climates
• Loss of plant and animal life
• Disruption of agriculture and increased food insecurity
• Exacerbated water scarcity and disease
• Melting of glaciers and polar ice caps

Prevention

• Transitioning to alternative energy sources

2. Ozone Depletion

Causes

• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Consequences

• Increased UV radiation leading to skin cancer, vision problems, and weakened immune systems

Prevention

• Banning CFCs (which has shown positive results)

3. Acid Rain

Causes

• Industrial emissions

Consequences

• Damage to vegetation
• Acidification

Watersheds

a) The Watershed: This is the territory whose waters are discharged into a main river and its tributaries.

Features:

• They are separated by watersheds formed by the tops of the mountains that delimit them.
• Peninsular watersheds (North, Minho, Douro, Tagus, Guadiana, Guadalquivir, Pyrenees, Ebro, South, Jucar, and Segura).
• In the basin, the rivers circulate, forming a channel or a network from the tributaries and the main river.

Watershed Management

Joint catchments discharging into the sea itself. The cause is the inclination of the plateau to the west from the Iberian system.

• Rivers from the Cantabrian side: They are short because they are born in mountains near the coast. They are erosive, and there is a significant drop from their source