Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Definitions:

Escorrentía: Rain and snowmelt water that runs through the ground surface up to the main sewer. When calculating the flow rate of a river near its mouth, it measures the entire basin runoff. Its speed is more pronounced on the slopes. It is lower in forested areas than on land devoid of vegetation.

Magra: Lowest level or minimum flow of a river or stream during a particular time of year. Refers to the period that lasts or decreases flow. This restriction may be due to a time of drought. Sometimes it gets to the drying of the river.

Garriga: Shrubbery with rugged leaves characteristic of a zone with a Mediterranean climate, dominated by Kermes oaks, rock roses, and other aromatic plants like rosemary, thyme, and lavender. It is less... Continue reading "Key Geographical and Demographic Definitions" »

Energy & Industrial Terminology Definitions

Fundamental Concepts

Biomass

The total mass of living material within a community or ecosystem. This often includes non-living organic material used as an energy source.

Fuel

A material burned or altered to produce energy, especially for power generation or heating. Examples include wood, coal, coke, oil, natural gas, etc.

Wetland

Land flooded or soaked in water, either permanently or seasonally.

Ecological Conscience

A positive attitude towards the responsible exploitation and management of natural resources. It implies recognizing the need for and promoting environmental protection policies.

Energy Sources & Types

Biogas

A mixture of gases produced by the fermentation or anaerobic digestion of biomass.

Palace of Catalan Music / Lluis Domenech i Montaner/1905-1908 / Barcelona / modernism / iron, brick, artificial stone, glass, ceramics, mosaic and other minors. / Arquitravat and lap / auditorium.

Casa Mila / Gaudi / 1906-1912/Modernisme/pedra, brick, ceramics and iron / civil / BCN

German Pavilion / Ludwig Mies van der Rohe / 1929/Barcelona/racionalisme/hacer, concrete, glass, travertine marble, onyx and granite. / Arquitravat.

Kaufmann House / Frank Lloyd Wright / 1935-1939 / reinforced concrete, based on the same rocky terrain and natural stone. LACER Also, wood, glass and aluminum / Arquitravat, with industrial materials / Bear Run, USA / organic / free family house .

Grief / Joseph Lemon / 1907 / marble carving / Exempt. Sedent/67 cm... Continue reading "Landmark Buildings and Artworks: A Comparative Study" »

Agrarian Peninsular Interior Landscape

1. Location

Agrarian peninsular interior landscape.

2. Environmental Analysis

• Relief: Flat relief, high average altitude on the plateau.
• Climate: Mediterranean climate, low summer rainfall.
• Vegetation: Predominantly scrub.
• Soil: Clay soil.

3. Analysis of Visible Human Elements

3.1 Plot Structure

Extensive crop quality, separated by segmentation or boundaries and roads.

3.2 Rural Land Uses

• Upland areas: Dominates the countryside of the plateau.
• Non-irrigated areas: Cropped areas.
• Irrigation: Intensive exploitation.
• Livestock: Important for cattle and sheep; dominant in Sierra Morena, Montes de Toledo, Sistema Ibérico, and the two Catalan coastal ranges.
• Land Use Balance: Balanced input between agriculture and livestock.

Concept of Material

Materials refer to all raw substances used in the production of useful objects for people. The manipulation of these raw materials produces objects that improve living standards.

Material Classification by Source

• Natural: Animal, vegetable, and mineral.
• Artificial.

Brief History of Material Use

Stone Age

• Paleolithic (2.5 million – 10,000 years ago): Stone, bones, horn, leather.
• Neolithic: Ceramics (clay heated over 450°C), bitumen, collagen glue.

Metal Age

• 4000 BC (Mesopotamia): Copper, gold, silver.
• 3000 BC – Bronze Age: An alloy of copper and tin; harder and with a lower melting point than copper. Used for weapons production.
• 1000 – 1500 BC: Iron, glass, and then timber.
• 20th Century: Concrete (cement + water + gravel).

Evolution

Economic Globalization and Major Institutions

International trade has grown significantly, leading to new production organization models, intensified international financial flows, and increased trade agreements between countries.

Key International Institutions

• World Bank: Aims to reduce poverty.
• IMF (International Monetary Fund): Advises governments on financial matters and provides loans to member countries.

Centers of the World Economy

Major Economic Powers

• United States: Represents over 20% of total world production. The US dollar remains the most important global currency.
• European Union: Stands as a leading economic power, though behind the United States in several aspects.
• East and Southeast Asia: Japan remains a wealthy nation. China has emerged

The landscape around us changes due to the action of external forces acting on its surface. The main energy source is solar energy.

Landscape Transformation by External Forces

The Role of Solar Energy

The amount of solar energy varies with latitude: the sun's rays do not strike all points of the Earth's surface in the same way. The energy received decreases as a function of latitude from the equatorial zones towards the poles, producing a thermal imbalance which is compensated by the flow of energy in the form of heat. This heat propagates through convective cells and is responsible for:

• Maintaining appropriate conditions for the development of life in the biosphere.
• Causing wind, clouds, rain, and snow, forming rivers, torrents, valleys, and glaciers.

Concrete Components

• Concrete Components

• Fine Aggregate Cement
• Coarse Aggregate
• Water
• Additives

These are substances or products incorporated into the concrete before or during mixing at a rate not exceeding 5% of the fresh concrete and/or to modify some of its characteristics, common properties, or behavior.

Common additives include water reducers, superplasticizers or plasticizers, retarders or accelerators for curing, air-entraining agents, dyes, and air occluders for frost resistance, etc.

• Additions

These are inorganic materials, pozzolanic or latent hydraulic, finely divided, that can be added to concrete to improve some of its properties or confer special properties.

An example includes the use of fly ash as an addenda. Fly ash is obtained by electrostatic... Continue reading "Concrete Composition: Materials, Dosage, and Properties" »

Plains and Valleys: Life and Landscapes

Erosion and the resulting deposition processes create plains and valleys with sediments from rivers. These are related to various aspects, including plains of sand and glacial origins, as well as human settlements. Examples include the plains of the Tigris-Euphrates, Danube, Amazon, and Indo rivers. Civilizations emerged in these valleys, such as those in Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Plains of the Americas

In the Americas, plains are found in:

• Tropical Zone: Orinoco, Amazon
• Temperate Zone: Central North American Plain, Silver Plain

The Amazon plain is shared by Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela, Bolivia, and Guyana. It features an equatorial climate. Human intervention, particularly in farming, began around 1840 with... Continue reading "Plains and Valleys: Formation, Characteristics, and Global Significance" »

Topic 1: Mineral and Crystal Formation

Silicates are the most common minerals and crystals. These include:

• Olivine
• Mica (biotite and muscovite)
• Feldspar
• Quartz

Crystals are minerals with a geometric form, flat faces, and vertices. They are ordered solids with an internal structure.

Texture refers to the shape, size, and arrangement of crystals.

Crystal Formation:

• Solidification of molten materials, forming crystals as plutonic rocks cool from magma.
• Sublimation of dissolved substances in gases, creating crystals like sulfur in volcanic conditions.
• Chemical precipitation from an aqueous solution, forming crystals like halite and gypsum. This process requires time, space, and rest.

Metamorphism

Metamorphism alters a rock's mineralogical composition and texture.... Continue reading "Minerals, Crystals, and Metamorphic Rocks" »