Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

The Spanish Plateau: Inner Mountain Ranges and Ridges

The Plateau, a dominant feature of the Spanish landscape, occupies the center of the Iberian Peninsula and accounts for 45% of Spain. During the Alpine movements, the plateau's block fractured into two parts:

The Northern Sub-Plateau

With an average altitude of 800-850m, the northern sub-plateau extends from east to west and is drained by the Duero River network. Rivers on this plateau have carved their way through the landscape, creating a varied topography. The presence of hard Hercynian materials has led to the formation of pits and gorges.

The Southern Sub-Plateau

Averaging 500-700m in altitude, the southern sub-plateau is divided into two parts by the Toledo Mountains. It is characterized... Continue reading "Spanish Plateau: Relief and Geological Features" »

Item 11: Impacts in the Atmosphere

Sources of Air Pollution

Natural Sources

Natural sources are more significant than those related to human beings, but they are spread around the planet:

• Volcanic eruptions: Emit sulfur compounds, carbon, nitrogen, and suspended particles.
• Natural forest fires: Release CO2.
• Finest sediment particles: They are lifted by wind in areas of low vegetation, such as deserts.

Anthropogenic Sources

Anthropogenic sources result from human activity. Artificial sources can release pollutants but also promote natural emissions.

Among them are transport, industrial processes, and household heating.

Local Effects of Air Pollution

Photochemical Smog

Photochemical smog can be defined as a mixture of toxic substances formed in the lower

Big Bang Theory

Both matter and energy, and space, were at the same point, called the primeval atom. The expanded atom caused a big explosion: the power went away in all directions and established matter. Helium and hydrogen particles and the stars were created, galaxies due to the condensation of matter.

Instruments Observation

Telescopes collect partial information about the universe. Satellites and probes have provided much relevant information on indirect methods, composition, and the structure of the Earth's interior. Measurements can teach us more about the content of the soil.

Seismic Waves

P waves and S waves, caused by catastrophes, reach Earth's surface. Discontinuities occur when the seismic wave enters another material. As detected in... Continue reading "Cosmos Evolution: Big Bang to Natural Selection" »

Roman Memorials

Roman memorials were usually located in the forum or on the access roads to the cities.

Triumphal Arches

Triumphal arches were built for parades of victorious troops, dedicated to victorious generals or emperors. They were often placed in strategic locations such as road crossings, near bridges, and especially at the ends of forums.

• Primarily known from the Imperial period, they must have also existed in the Republican period.
• Their typology was diverse:
  • They usually consist of one or three openings, called "eyes," with the central one being the broadest. Above the entablature, a second body called the "attic" or "penthouse" was available, on which inscriptions were placed. The entire structure was completed with architectural and

Binders

Binders are materials that, when mixed with water, produce a chemical reaction that gives cohesion to particles. They are used to join construction pieces.

Chalk

• A naturally occurring calcium sulfate.
• Cooked to 180 °C, it becomes soft.
• Cannot be used outdoors as it becomes solid quickly and oxidizes iron.
• Uses: Wall cladding and ceilings.
• Variety: Plaster, used for plasterboard, decoration, molds, prosthetics, and orthopedic arts.

Lime

• Calcium carbonate, obtained by heating to about 900 °C.
• Highly reactive with water, which can raise the reaction temperature to 150 °C.
• Replaced cement until its discovery.
• Applications: Additive in mortars, whitewashed walls, purification tanks.

Cement

• A mixture of clay and limestone, heated to about 1600 °C.
• Properties

Factors Influencing the Peninsular Rivers

The characteristics of peninsular rivers are influenced by several factors, including:

• Climate: Rainfall and temperature patterns significantly impact river flow.
• Relief: The topography of the land affects the direction and speed of water flow.
• Lithology: The underlying rock type influences water absorption and erosion.
• Vegetation: Plant life can affect water flow and sediment levels.
• Human Action: Activities such as dam construction and irrigation alter river regimes.

River regimes can be classified as rain-fed, snow-fed, or a combination of both (mixed).

Basin Types

• Exorheic Basin: Characterized by water flowing into the open sea.
• Endorheic Basin: Refers to landlocked water bodies.
• Arheic Basin: Describes areas

Biodiversity in Spain

Location: Southwest Europe. Spain has two large biogeographic regions: Atlantic and Mediterranean. The Canary Islands have a tropical climate. The Iberian Peninsula served as a refuge during glaciations. Many animal and plant species evolved, forming new species. The presence of mountain ranges allows species to reproduce at high altitudes, creating a gradation between northern and southern Europe.

Human Impact on Biodiversity

Biodiversity has been affected by human actions, which have transformed the natural landscape (forests replaced by arable fields, etc.). This has led to a loss of vegetation and an increase in urban and industrial sites.

Landscapes of Plants

Oceanic Plant Landscape

Found in the Galician and Biscay regions.... Continue reading "Spain's Biodiversity: Habitats and Threats" »

Weathering of Rocks by Atmospheric Agents

Clasts are fragments of rock torn from a larger rock mass. The fragmentation of rocks is caused by atmospheric agents such as rain and snow. These agents wet the rock, dissolving minerals and reacting with them. Temperature changes also contribute: the expansion of rocks as the sun heats them contrasts with the contraction caused by freezing. Water seeps into cracks in rocks, subjecting them to pressure during freezing (gelifraction).

Weathering is the set of processes due to atmospheric agents that produce the alteration and disintegration of rocks.

• Mechanical Weathering: The rock is fragmented due to expansion and contraction, the freezing of water, or the impact of falling rocks.
• Chemical Weathering:

1. Geological Processes: Origin and Types

1.1 External Geological Processes

• Source:
  • Solar energy
• Type:
  • Weathering: Action of the atmosphere
  • Erosion: Separation of fragments and soil disturbance
  • Transport: Movement of these fragments in favor of gravity

1.2 Internal Geological Processes

• Source:
  • Geothermal energy inside the Earth
• Type:
  • Orogenic Movements: Horizontal displacement
  • Epirogenic Movements: The rise and decline with increasing mass of the Earth's crust

2. Plate Tectonics

• Structure based on geochemical and dynamic models:

• Source of plate movement:
  • Two scenarios:

1. Convection currents or flaring rims creating constructive

Wilson Cycle

1. Hot mantle materials rise, causing the crust to fracture due to its rigidity. The fractures allow magma to output, and blocks of the lithosphere move, initiating the formation of an intracontinental rift valley.
2. The expansion of the ocean floor creates a narrow sea.
3. The growth of the seafloor allows the development of a mature ocean basin. Stable continental margins are limited by the basin's floor, where an important place of sediment deposition occurs.
4. The stable continental margins become active when the oceanic lithosphere begins to sink in subduction.
5. The reduction of the ocean is very evident. Marginal ranges are formed on active continental margins.
6. The oceanic lithosphere continues to subduct and sink until the ocean is completely