Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Our Solar System

The Sun is the center of the place we call the Solar System. The eight planets that orbit the Sun are:

• Mercury
• Venus
• Earth
• Mars
• Jupiter
• Saturn
• Uranus
• Neptune

There are also five additional celestial bodies classified as dwarf planets. The five recognized dwarf planets are Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris.

The Sun

The Sun is a large ball of hydrogen, helium, and plasma. It is around four and a half billion years old and appears white in color from space. Its real name is Sol. From Earth, it appears to move along an imaginary line called the Ecliptic.

The Planets

Mercury

Mercury is the smallest planet and the closest to the Sun. You could fit 19 Mercurys inside Earth. It is gray in color and lacks an atmosphere, moons, and a ring system.... Continue reading "Planets, Moons, and Stars in Our Solar System" »

Soil Pollution Effects

Health Risks from Soil Contamination

Direct contact with contaminated soil or groundwater from affected regions can have an adverse impact on humans, animals, fish, and other living organisms. Consumption of food grown on such soil poses the greatest threat to human life. Contact with soil polluted by heavy metals such as arsenic, lead, and chromium is largely responsible for increased cases of cancer, birth defects, and leukemia.

Ecosystem Degradation Due to Soil Pollution

Soil contamination is often the result of:

• Leaching from landfills
• Release of untreated industrial waste
• Acid rain due to excessive air pollution
• Nuclear fallout
• Fuel dumping
• Oil spills on land

Soil pollution leads to low crop productivity and stunted growth... Continue reading "Health and Environmental Impacts of Pollution" »

Macroevolution: Lack of Observable Evidence

Science depends on observation and repeatability. Macroevolution has never been directly observed. No one has ever seen a reptile turn into a bird or a land animal evolve into a whale. These are claims based on the interpretation of fossils, not direct evidence.

For macroevolution to work, new complex features must evolve, such as wings, eyes, or nervous systems. There is no proven mechanism that adds entirely new, functional genetic information to create brand new organs or body plans.

The Missing Fossil Record Debate

Darwin himself admitted the fossil record posed a significant problem for his theory. If macroevolution were true, we would expect to find numerous transitional fossils. However, the fossil... Continue reading "Scientific Challenges to Macroevolutionary Claims" »

Climate Change: Causes, Evidence, and Controversy

Defining Climate Change

Climate change is a long-term shift in the Earth's climate, especially a change due to an increase in the average atmospheric temperature.

The Climate Change Debate

The discussion surrounding climate change often involves differing viewpoints:

Scientific Consensus vs. Skepticism

• Scientific View: Climate scientists assert there is strong proof that humans are causing climate change. Evidence includes rising temperatures, melting polar ice, and increased extreme weather events (like floods and heatwaves). These indicators suggest that human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, are harming the planet.
• Alternative Views: Some politicians and groups do not fully agree. They

Volcano Formation and Plate Tectonics

Refuting the Divergent Plate Boundary Myth

The assertion that only divergent plate boundaries cause volcanoes is incorrect. While divergent plate boundaries certainly cause volcanoes due to the upwelling of magma as the plates move apart, volcanic activity can also form through other significant geological mechanisms.

Alternative Mechanisms for Volcanic Activity:

• Convergent Plate Boundaries: Volcanoes form where one plate subducts under another. This process leads to melting in the mantle wedge above the subducting slab, resulting in magma generation and subsequent volcanic activity.
• Hotspots: Volcanoes can occur at hotspots, which are areas of intense heat in the Earth's mantle. These plumes cause melting and

Magmatism and Volcanism

Magmatism and volcanism are fundamental geological processes related to the formation of magma and volcanoes.

Magmatism: Formation of Magma and Rocks

Magmatism is the process involving the formation of magma (a mixture of melted materials with minerals and gases) and magmatic rocks (formed from the consolidation of magma). Conditions conducive to rock fusion include:

• Temperature increase: Elevated temperatures cause rocks to melt.
• Pressure decrease: Reduced pressure allows rocks to expand and, consequently, melt.
• Presence of fluids: Water, in particular, significantly lowers the melting point of rocks.

Volcanism: Magma Reaching the Surface

Volcanism is the process by which magma reaches the Earth's surface, forming volcanoes... Continue reading "Earth's Dynamic Geology: Processes, Relief, and Risks" »

Earth Science Final Exam Review

April 14, 2025 – Lecture 18: Natural Resources – Energy and Mineral Resources

Natural Resources: An Introduction

Natural resources are materials or substances that occur in nature and can be used for economic gain. Humanity cannot create natural resources; they take millions, even billions, of years to form within Earth. Therefore, we are limited to what nature provides. Natural resources are broadly classified into eight groups: wildlife, air, wind, soil, water, fossil fuels, sunlight, and minerals (including precious metals like copper, gold, silver, nickel). Mineral resources, by definition, are inorganic, meaning they are not derived from living things (for example, coal is considered organic because it... Continue reading "Earth's Interconnected Systems: Resources, Climate, and Impact" »

Soybean

Requires warm areas and medium-textured soils.

Neutral pH preferred; drought-tolerant.

Sowing from August 20th to August 30th.

Seeding rate: 2.5–4 kg/ha, spacing: 12.5 cm.

Nutrition and Fertilization

Nitrogen (N) requirements vary, with 0–30 kg N/ha. 9 Phosphorus (P), 30 Potassium (K).

Herbicides applied pre-emergence; insecticides for pest thresholds.

Harvest

Chemical desiccation harvest, 10 days after, at 12-16% moisture.

Dry seeds to 8% for storage.

Oilseed Rape

Typical rotation: Winter wheat, oilseed rape, spring barley.

Avoid planting oilseed rape within 4 years on the same field.

Medium-textured soils with good aeration.

Frost-resistant; requires adequate nutrient supply. Needs vernalization.

Early sowing by late August.

Plant density: 30-... Continue reading "Cultivation Practices for Key Crops: From Sowing to Harvest" »

117 Ways to Pass the Earth Science Regents

1. The same substance always has the same density.

2. As pressure increases, density increases.

3. As temperature increases, density decreases.

4. Water expands when it freezes.

5. Most changes are cyclic.

6. Water is most dense at 4^oC, when it is a liquid.

7. The true shape of the Earth is an oblate spheroid, but from space it looks like a sphere.

44. As temperature increases, air pressure decreases.

45. As moisture increases, pressure decreases.

46. Air pressure decreases with altitude.

47. Highs are cool and dry; lows are warm and wet.

48. Wind is due to air pressure differences.

49. Wind blows from high to low pressure.

50. Wind is named from the direction that it is coming from.

51. The accepted value is the... Continue reading "Earth Science Regents: 117 Key Concepts" »