Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Geology

117 Ways to Pass the Earth Science Regents

1. The same substance always has the same density.

2. As pressure increases, density increases.

3. As temperature increases, density decreases.

4. Water expands when it freezes.

5. Most changes are cyclic.

6. Water is most dense at 4^oC, when it is a liquid.

7. The true shape of the Earth is an oblate spheroid, but from space it looks like a sphere.

44. As temperature increases, air pressure decreases.

45. As moisture increases, pressure decreases.

46. Air pressure decreases with altitude.

47. Highs are cool and dry; lows are warm and wet.

48. Wind is due to air pressure differences.

49. Wind blows from high to low pressure.

50. Wind is named from the direction that it is coming from.

51. The accepted value is the... Continue reading "Earth Science Regents: 117 Key Concepts" »

1. What are the innermost layers of Earth?

The inner core is the innermost physical layer of the Earth. The core is the innermost chemical layer.

2. What evidence indicates that the outer core is liquid?

Evidence from earthquake waves indicates that the outer core is liquid.

3. How does Earth generate a magnetic field?

It surrounds Earth.

4. Compare the lithosphere and the asthenosphere

The lithosphere is a rigid layer. The asthenosphere is a plastic layer.

5. How is the crust different from the mantle?

The mantle has more iron. The crust is less dense than the mantle.

6. What are the four layers of the mantle?

• Lithosphere
• Asthenosphere
• Uppermost mantle
• Lower mantle

7. Which layer of the mantle has the greatest pressure? Explain

The lower mantle because pressure... Continue reading "Earth's Layers and Systems: Composition and Properties" »

Brief Definition

Global warming refers to the gradual increase of the earth's average surface temperature, due to excessive greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Possible Solutions

While this may seem like a small change, we can avoid the consequences by being aware of the problem generated by the gases or other chemicals that we use every day in our lives. This could reduce GHG emissions.

Main Factors

• The build up of the gases in the atmosphere.
• Burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil.

My Opinion

I think we need to have control of what we do or use. We must have a lot of information on the subject and contribute with our small but essential grain of sand.

Volcanic Eruptions

Molten rock and gases are ejected through the Earth's crust.

Continental Drift

A slow horizontal movement of the continents.

Earthquakes

A violent trembling of the Earth's crust which lasts a short time and varies in intensity.

Isostasy

Slow vertical movement of the Earth's crust.

Our atmosphere was formed about 4,000 million years ago.

The Magnetic Field

Around the Earth originates in the outer core.

Hot Rocks

Allow the installation of geothermal plants that take advantage of the heat to vaporize water and produce electricity.

Hydrothermal Phenomena

Occur when water seeps into the crust through cracks, it gets into contact with rocks at high temperatures.

The Earth's crust is a rigid and cold layer. Magma is a mixture of gases and molten... Continue reading "Earth's Geology and Natural Phenomena" »

Diphthongs

Described as vowel glides, since in their production the tongue begins in one place and moves to another. This movement of the tongue, however smooth, results in a change of vowel quality, which is why diphthongs are sometimes looked upon as 'combinations of 2 vowels'.

Diphthongs are usually classified according to whether they are:

• Falling or rising
• Wide or narrow
• Front or back
• Closing or centering

The diphthongs of RP are all stressed on the first element, described as falling. Those stressed on the finishing point (rising), can also be wide or narrow, according to the movement of the tongue from the first to the second target. Those in which the position of the tongue body changes quite noticeably are described as 'wide diphthongs'.... Continue reading "English Phonetics: Diphthongs and Consonants" »

Just 2.5% of water on Earth is fresh water. About 69% of that fresh water is frozen. This means that less than 1% of water on Earth is drinkable.

1. The Atmosphere

1. The atmosphere

Earth's gaseous atmosphere is mostly nitrogen & oxygen. It also contains argon, carbon dioxide, ozone & water vapor.

Earth's atmosphere has an upper limit of 10,000 kilometers.

Most of the gases are found in the lowest 15 kilometers.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

The gases in the atmosphere push down on Earth's surface.

The weight of all these gases is called atmospheric pressure.

We measure atmospheric pressure in standard units called pascals. 1 standard atmosphere = 101.325 pascals.

There is more pressure at lower altitudes, near Earth's surface. There is less pressure at... Continue reading "Earth's Fluid Spheres: Atmosphere and Hydrosphere" »

Climate and Factors Affecting it

• Altitude is the height of a place relative to sea level.
• Temperature falls 0.6ºC for every 100 m of altitude.
• Relief can also cause

What is an Environmentally Sustainable Society?

One that meets the current and future basic resource needs of its people in

a just and equitable manner without compromising the ability of the future

generations to meet their basic resource needs

Environmental Scientists

John Muir (1892) - created Yosemite National Parks

Created Sierra club

Eugene and Howard (1953) - wrote the first ecology textbook

Rachel Carson (1962) - wrote Silent Spring

Effects of DDT

Lois Gibbs (1980) - formed the Citizens Clearinghouse for hazardous

 waste, petition to Jimmy Carter

The town was called Love Canal

Theodore Roosevelt (1900) - created the United States Forest Service

 for Wildlife

Established 5 national parks

Antiquities Act

James Lovelock (1960s) - created the Gaia

The Devastating Impact of Plastic Pollution

Ubiquitous Waste: A Global Problem

Plastic waste has become ubiquitous, contaminating every corner of our planet, including our oceans. Its persistence and improper disposal lead to its widespread distribution, harming ecosystems and wildlife.

Biodegradable vs. Non-Biodegradable: A Misconception

While plastic may break down into smaller pieces, it does not biodegrade. These fragments can be ingested by animals, entering the food chain and causing contamination and health issues.

The Lasting Legacy of Plastic: A Threat to Humanity

Most plastics are virtually indestructible, outlasting even the harshest conditions. This poses a significant threat to our planet and future generations, as it will continue to... Continue reading "The Devastating Impact of Plastic Pollution: A Call to Action" »

What is Climate Change?

Climate change refers to the long-term variations in global climate patterns. These changes can be driven by natural processes, external forces, or human activities. However, the term "global warming" specifically highlights the impact of human activities on the planet's temperature.

The Human Impact

Over the past few decades, human activities have significantly contributed to global warming. The Earth's average temperature has risen by approximately two degrees Celsius, and projections indicate continued warming unless we take action. While thousands share responsibility for this change, several key factors contribute to the problem:

• The Greenhouse Effect: The burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere,