Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Railroad Construction in Spain (1855-1873)

The laying of the railway network in Spain began in 1855, following the approval of the General Law of Railways.

Stages of Expansion and Crisis

The first major expansion of the route required a much greater mobilization of capital compared to other initiatives of that century. However, the financial crisis of 1866 led to a period of suspension of construction, evidenced by the low returns on rail investment. Profits were very low, and stock values plummeted.

A new stage began in 1873, aimed at completing the layout of the network, which had been paralyzed as a result of the previous crisis that had dissolved most construction companies.

Economic Effects of the 1855 Railway Law

The 1855 law established the... Continue reading "Spanish Railroad Construction and Economic Transformation (1855-1873)" »

Characteristics of Current Foreign Trade

• Worldwide Expansion and Steady Growth

  This expansion is explained by the international division of labor, the unequal distribution of natural resources (requiring countries to buy goods and services they do not produce), and improved means of transport.

• Formation of Country Trading Blocs

  These blocs eliminate customs duties among member countries. Their aim is to encourage and facilitate trade, achieving a stronger position in world trade negotiations.

• Types of Trade Relations Between Countries

  • Protective Trade: Establishes tariffs or border taxes to protect domestic products from foreign competition.
  • Free Trade: Involves no fees or tariffs.
  • Mixed Trade: Features no tariffs between countries forming a single

Industrial Location: Factors and Global Trends

Classic Industrial Location Factors

• Proximity to raw materials and energy sources
• Proximity to the consumer market
• Abundant, cheap, and well-qualified labor
• Efficient transport system
• Industrial policy
• Entrepreneurial will
• Historical tradition
• Political and social circumstances

Historical Trend: Industrial Concentration (1855-1975)

During the period 1855-1975, industries exhibited a strong tendency towards concentration in large urban-industrial agglomerations. This resulted from several factors:

• Crowding and availability of facilities for supply and transport
• Ease of obtaining labor
• Proximity to markets
• Access to numerous services and capital equipment
• Easy access to information and innovation

This trend led to... Continue reading "Industrial Location Dynamics: Factors and Global Trends" »

Agrarian Transformations in 18th Century Britain

The changes in British agriculture during the eighteenth century were so significant that they are often referred to as an Agricultural Revolution, occurring alongside the Industrial Revolution.

As large-scale industry developed, agricultural activity also advanced, characterized by:

• High productivity
• An advanced degree of mechanization
• Ownership concentrated among entrepreneurs

This agricultural revolution involved both technical changes and reforms in land structure and distribution.

Technical and Structural Changes

Key technical advancements included:

• The elimination of the fallow period through the adoption of crop rotation systems, preventing fields from lying unused.
• Selection of improved crop varieties

Agriculture in Spain

Spain has a modern agriculture and market characterized by the following features:

• Prevalence of intensive farming, helped by the expansion of irrigation and poor use of fallow.
• Use of new technologies, fertilizers and pesticides, selection of seeds, and new farming systems (sanded, greenhouses, etc.).
• Specialization of crops by region. For example, the Almeria coastline has specialized in greenhouse vegetable crops.
• Existence of more prepared personnel and rejuvenation of agricultural workers by immigrants.
• Crops for the farm and food industry.

Challenges Facing Spanish Agriculture

However, current Spanish agriculture is facing many problems and challenges:

• The abandonment of farming in many areas of inland Spain.
• The use in various

The 1992 Earth Summit: Rio Conference on Environment and Development

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), commonly known as the Earth Summit or Rio Summit, was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, between 3 and 14 June 1992.

During this landmark meeting, participating countries agreed to adopt a development approach that would protect the environment while ensuring economic and social development (sustainable development).

Under the auspices of the UN, 150 countries—represented by 107 heads of state or government—approved, among other things, the "Agenda 21" action plan for sustainable development of the planet without compromising resources for future generations, as well as two separate agreements to preserve... Continue reading "The 1992 Earth Summit: Defining Sustainable Development and Agenda 21" »

The Human Species: An Evolutionary Perspective

Although Charles Darwin did not explicitly detail human evolution in his initial work, the concept that humans are a product of evolution rather than divine creation was inherent in his theories. Our evolutionary path has been significantly shaped by the development of "artificial" elements, or culture, a trait not widely observed in other animals. This includes practices like caring for the elderly and disabled. From this viewpoint, humans are a "normal" animal species, capable of both great good and great harm.

Our Species' Recent Geological Age

Our species, Homo sapiens sapiens, is geologically very recent. Our planet formed approximately 4.65 billion years ago from the condensation of gas and... Continue reading "Human Evolution: From Ancestors to Homo Sapiens Sapiens" »

Item 15 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 is the fundamental law governing the Spanish system of government. It is characterized by:

• National Sovereignty
• The division of powers: executive, legislative, and judicial.
• Freedom and equality before the law.
• The guarantee and protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens.

The Political Organization of the State

The state is organized around three powers:

• Legislature: Responsible for developing and passing legislation. Courts are generally divided into the Congress of Deputies and the Senate.
• Executive: Corresponds to the Government, which comprises the President and ministers. Its mission is to implement laws and direct domestic and foreign policy.
• Judiciary: Exercised by courts, and its function is

Factors Influencing Agricultural Production

Natural Factors

• Climate

  Determines the type of crop suitable for the region.

• Topography

  Steep slopes make work difficult and can impede mechanization.

• Soil Type

  Composition determines fertility; not all soils are equally suitable for the same crops.

Human Factors

• Population Pressure

  Increased population can drive the need to cultivate more land.

• Tradition

  Influences the type of products grown and cultivation methods.

• Cultivation Techniques

  Technological development has overcome environmental difficulties.

• Government Action

  Provides grants or subsidies to encourage the growth of specific products.

Crop Characteristics and Land Use

Crop Performance and Yield

• Types of Cultivation

  Includes field crops, bushes, and

The Second Industrial Revolution and European Dominance

The Second Industrial Revolution transformed the economy of the major European powers. Technical innovations, new forms of work organization, and the growth of banking allowed a spectacular increase in production and trade, and improved transport. Europe launched the dominance of the world. The most advanced countries established colonial empires.

Key Causes of European Colonialism

The drive toward colonialism was fueled by several interconnected factors:

• Economic Factors: European countries needed, on the one hand, new markets to sell goods at the best price, and on the other, they wanted to invest their surplus capital in other places to obtain higher profits.
• Population Growth: Population