Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

A composite linear graph represents the evolution of the number of visitors (in millions) and tourism receipts (in millions of euros) in Spain between 1955 and 2007.

The evolution of visitors and tourism revenue has experienced an increasing trend over the period, except at specific moments linked to economic crises.

Since the 1960s, Spain has experienced great development, and today, tourism is the second largest in the world by the number of foreign tourists and revenue received.

The "Sun and Beach" Model of the 1960s

The tourist model introduced in the 1960s was "sun and beach." It is characterized by an abundant and cheap tourist, which led to massive demand, with medium to medium-low purchasing power, concentrated in summer and in areas of... Continue reading "Spain's Tourism Growth: Visitors and Revenue 1955-2007" »

Human Intervention in Spanish Vegetation

Human impact on the vegetation cover began when societies started farming. During the Roman era, forests saw few changes, but Roman agricultural management converted large forest areas into land suitable for plowing to supply grain, wine, and oil to Rome. During the period of the Reconquista, although many forests remained, vegetation cover decreased due to a new culture based on cereal farming.

Forestry in the Modern Age and Post-Civil War

During the modern age, many forests were devastated by logging for the army and domestic use, as well as to expand acreage. After the Civil War, reforestation began to achieve self-sufficiency and reduce dependence on foreign wood. This reforestation was primarily carried... Continue reading "Human Impact on Spanish Vegetation and Environment" »

Spain's population has surpassed 46 million people, driven largely by foreign residents. The progress of the latest census, dated January 1, 2008, was published yesterday by the National Statistics Institute (INE) and shows the largest increase in population since 2004.

Key figures from the INE census

The total figure increased by 862,774 people in one year, more than double the growth that occurred in the previous year. The increase is due mainly to foreigners: eight out of ten new residents were born outside Spain. The number of foreigners reached 5.22 million, more than 11% of the total population. The national increase was only 0.4%, while the foreign population increased by more than 15%.

Origin and composition of foreign residents

More than... Continue reading "Spain Population Tops 46 Million as Foreign Residents Surge" »

Sustainable development encompasses the general principles of ecological, economic, and social sustainability. Economic sustainability focuses on conserving natural resources and minimizing environmental impacts. The economy, in this context, involves productive activities that meet societal interests and progress, with costs not exceeding income. Social sustainability aims for a more equitable distribution of resources and wealth.

To achieve sustainable development objectives, a number of core principles are essential:

• Principle of Sustainable Resource Exploitation

  Extraction rates of renewable resources must be equal to or lower than their regeneration rates. Exploitation is sustainable when the extraction rate nearly equals the rate of creation

Contemporary Spanish Urbanization (19th-20th Centuries)

In the nineteenth century, the provincial division of Javier de Burgos in 1833 gave a boost to the cities chosen as provincial capitals. These cities benefited from the location of these administrations and services.

The nineteenth century was also the century when industrialization began, causing significant urban development. Mid-century population growth led to the demolition of city walls and the construction of extensions.

The first years of the 20th century represented a continuity in the growth of industrial cities, slowed only by the crisis of 1929 and the 1930s Civil War.

Urban growth recovered in the 1950s and accelerated in the next decade, especially in large cities that received... Continue reading "Key Eras of Spanish Urbanization and City Growth" »

Types of Labor Mobility

• Change of company without change of residence (Geographic Immobility).
• Change of occupation without change of business or residence (Functional Mobility).
• Change of employment and enterprise without changing residence.
• Change of residence without a change of occupation or business (Geographic Mobility).
• Change of residence and business/occupation (Migration).

Determinants of Migration

• Income differences per person.
• Wage differentials between jobs.
• Overall and sector-specific unemployment rates.
• Family ties.
• Level of education.
• Age and sex.
• Distance between origin and destination.
• Language.
• Benefits (e.g., social welfare).

Consequences of Migration

• Increase in migrants' revenues.
• Reduction of wage differentials between origin and destination.

Population Distribution Factors

The population is concentrated in places with favorable characteristics:

• Places where water abounds, necessary for life and economic activities.
• Areas with temperate climates.
• Valleys and plains, often with fertile soil for agriculture.
• Areas rich in mineral and energy resources.
• Populated areas since ancient times.
• Areas with high economic activity.
• Sometimes, governments have forced people to move to a region.

Major Population Concentrations

Large concentrations of population include:

• East Asia: This region contains over half of the world's population.
• Europe: Especially the central area.
• Northwest Coast of America: The third most populous area with 300 million inhabitants.

Smaller pockets include the Gulf of Guinea, the... Continue reading "Population Distribution, Migration, and Demographics: A Global Analysis" »

Consequences of Colonization in Africa

In just 20 years, starting from the 1884 Berlin Conference, Africa was completely colonized. Due to the continent's perceived impenetrability, colonies were demarcated along artificial meridian lines and parallels. This arbitrary division often grouped disparate ethnic, religious, and cultural populations within single states, leading to significant consequences. While pre-colonial Africa was characterized by tribal affiliations rather than unified nations, resulting in frequent inter-tribal conflicts, colonial boundaries exacerbated these tensions. Furthermore, colonial powers established systems of economic exploitation, prioritizing resource extraction over infrastructure development for local populations.... Continue reading "Colonization of Africa and Asia: Impacts and Transformations" »

Characteristics of Human Settlements

Human settlements can be classified into two groups:

• Urban Settlements: This group includes towns, cities, metropolises, and megacities. Their functions are:
  • To be political and administrative centers
  • To be secondary and tertiary economic centers
  • To be key transportation facilities and communication centers
  • To be centers of social interaction
• Rural Settlements: This group includes concentrated settlements and dispersed settlements. Their functions are linked to:
  • Food production
  • Extraction of raw materials
  • Secondary economic activities

Cities are a human phenomenon; they do not arise spontaneously but originate in a historical process.

Urban Features

The urban environment is defined as a set of special conditions formed... Continue reading "Human Settlements: Urban and Rural Characteristics" »

Understanding Population Decline and Demographic Shifts

The overall decline in population growth is primarily attributed to two factors: natural growth (births minus deaths) and migration. With a reduction in international migration, current population growth is predominantly driven by natural processes.

Factors Influencing Population Decline

Declining Sex Ratio

The reduction in the contribution of international migration, which historically included a significant number of middle-aged males, combined with women generally living longer, contributes to a continued downward trend in sex ratios (fewer males per 100 females).

Constant Process of Population Aging

Population aging is a persistent demographic trend, characterized by an increasing proportion... Continue reading "Population Dynamics: Trends, Decline, and Key Demographic Indicators" »