Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Social Classes Post-French Revolution

The French Revolution introduced the equality of all citizens before the law, eliminating privileged classes. However, social classes emerged, grouping people according to their economic level. These included:

The Ruling Classes

• Nobility

  Derived its income from vast land holdings, increasing productivity and profit through the introduction of modern agricultural techniques.

• Upper Middle Class

  Engaged in industrial, commercial, banking, and agricultural enterprises, amassing great fortunes that rivaled the luxury of the old nobility.

The Middle Class

This class was formed by a diverse set of comerciantes (merchants). While their political positions were often close to the ruling classes, they were separated by voting... Continue reading "Social Classes & Early Labor Movements: Post-French Revolution" »

Crisis and Conversion in Spain

In 1973, Spain faced a significant economic crisis triggered by the global oil crisis. This crisis had profound effects on the Spanish economy, reflecting its peripheral position in the global market.

External Factors

• Emergence of semi-peripheral countries with cheaper labor, supported by states, primarily in Southeast Asia, leading to a New International Division of Labor.
• Continued technological innovation, replacing manual labor.
• Increase in oil prices, marking the onset of the crisis, as oil had previously been a cheap alternative to coal.
• Closure of traditional external labor markets, resulting in the expulsion of immigrants.

Internal Factors

• Rising labor costs due to an improved standard of living.
• Stagnation in

15th Century: Economic & Social Transformation

Politically, the 15th century witnessed a significant trend towards the concentration of monarchical power across most of Western Europe. Political authority, once dispersed among various estates, gradually consolidated in the hands of the king. Concurrently, the expansion of roads, improved transport, and commercial success fostered the emergence of new commercial activities that began to break down the traditional barriers of guilds and cities.

This period also saw a deep crisis in the social relations of estates. The development of agriculture, livestock, and industry fueled the growth of the bourgeoisie and the widespread dissemination of their mentality and values, including: individuality,

The Inter-War Economic Period and Crisis

The inter-war period was characterized by a clash between countries promoting private initiative, countries where dictatorships triumphed, and countries where the proletariat and fascism were emerging.

Economic Stages (1920-1928)

Between 1920 and 1928, there were three distinct economic stages:

• Economic Boom: Due to the conversion of war industries and reconstruction.
• Stabilization: The United States provided credits to European countries for reconstruction.
• Expansion: New industries and production methods emerged.

Factors Leading to the 1929 Crash

Towards the end of the 1920s, a series of factors led to the crash:

• War Debts: Physical destruction caused by wars was recovered through credits, leading to debt.
• Shift

19th Century Industrialization in Catalonia

Key Industries

• Textile Industry: Experienced a significant boom in the 19th century.
• Mining Sector: Did not experience the same level of growth as the textile industry.
• Metallurgical Industry: Initiated by Bonaplata and continued by terrestrial and marine engineers.
• Chemical Industry: Specialized in dyes for textile printing and washing.
• Cork Industry: Saw an expansion in the production of spirits and wines.
• Paper Manufacturing: Growth in paper production.

The Labor Movement

Working Conditions

Workers faced extremely difficult conditions:

• Low wages
• Long working hours, up to 15 hours a day
• Precarious working environments with noise, extreme temperatures, and poor ventilation
• Poor nutrition and lack of rest
• Frequent

The revolution that began almost simultaneously with the war issued a call for general and special Cortes. This initiative came from the Central Junta, although it was carried out by the Regency.

Composition and Functioning of the Cortes

Among the deputies, there existed distinct groups:

• A group that sought no change to the absolutist political system.
• Another group advocated an intermediate regime between the old absolutism and a constitutional model based on the sovereignty of the nation.
• The Liberals proposed a single chamber to assume national sovereignty and to develop a constitution that would reflect the new arrangements introduced by the French Revolution.

This last position triumphed in Cádiz, as the Liberals had significant influence.

Along... Continue reading "The Cortes of Cádiz: Spain's Path to Constitutional Reform" »