Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Self-Determination and the Colonial Order

The concept of self-determination for peoples has evolved significantly, particularly in relation to the colonial and international order.

Origin and Development of Colonization

The origins of modern colonization can be traced back to the 16th and 17th centuries. Colonial powers often justified their acquisition of legal titles over colonized territories by asserting the concept of "uninhabited land." However, many indigenous peoples were already politically organized, even if their political orders were considered "primitive" by the colonizers. The 19th century saw a significant intensification of the colonization of Africa. Other forms of colonization were also established through agreements concluded... Continue reading "Decolonization and Self-Determination: A Historical Perspective" »

Key Events of the 15th Century

• 1488: Bartolomeu Dias, after a journey around the coast of Africa and enduring storms, reached the southern tip of the continent. King John II of Portugal renamed it the Cape of Good Hope.
• 1492: Christopher Columbus, in command of two caravels and a ship, set sail from Palos de la Frontera, Spain, heading into the Atlantic Ocean. In October, he reached the island of Guanahani, which he named San Salvador.
• 1493: Columbus embarked on his second voyage to America. Pope Alexander VI agreed with the Spanish monarchs to grant them dominion over the newly discovered territories.

Key Events of the 16th Century

• 1501: Amerigo Vespucci, for whom the American continent is named, visited Brazil with a Portuguese fleet.
• 1502:

... Continue reading "Key Events and Voyages of the 15th and 16th Centuries" »

Population Growth in the 18th and 19th Centuries

Since the mid-18th century, the increase in food production made possible a high population growth. Famines disappeared, and the population, better fed, had greater resistance to diseases and epidemics.

This growth was the result of changes in fertility and mortality. In the 18th century, birth rates rose from 32.5 per thousand at the beginning of the century to 37 per thousand at the end, due to the decline in marriage age and the number of celibate individuals, improving the economic situation.

The reduction in mortality was the result of better nutrition. The mortality rate declined by one-third, from around 32 per thousand in 1700 to just above 20 per thousand in the late 19th century.

Life expectancy... Continue reading "Population Growth and Industrial Development in the 18th and 19th Centuries" »

... Continue reading "Industrial Revolution: Causes and Key Developments" »

Industry Development

The Mechanization and the Factory System

Use of machines replacing human or animal labor by machines, hydropower, or coal. Factories were established, and craft production was gradually replaced by the factory system (mass production). The mechanization of the production process began in the textile industry with the flying shuttle, new spinning machines, and looms. Little by little, machines were extended to agriculture, mining, and metallurgy. These machines began to move through the use of hydropower by waterwheels. The steam engine, patented by Watt in 1769, allowed independence to be achieved. These advances led to an increase in productivity and output, enabling lower costs and reduced prices.

The Cotton Industry

Cotton... Continue reading "Industrial Revolution: Mechanization, Economy, and Social Impact" »

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was a process that characterized the accelerated transition from agrarian societies of the Ancien Régime to a new stage of self-sustained economic and population growth, based on industrial production. The process involves a series of changes that marked the demise of the old economic system and the introduction of industrial capitalism. It was the result of a series of parallel and interconnected revolutions, which affected the population, agriculture, technology, transport, and trade, as well as the textile and steel industries.

The Demographic Revolution

The Demographic Revolution is the process through which the old demographic cycle, characterized by the stagnation of the population, transitioned... Continue reading "Key Transformations of the Modern Industrial Era" »

The Old Regime, spanning from the late fifteenth century to the last third of the eighteenth century, was characterized by distinct features.

Key Features of the Ancien Régime

• Demographics

  High mortality rates and reduced birth rates resulted in minimal natural population increase.

• Economy

  Traditional agriculture dominated, with craft production controlled by guilds. Foreign trade was hampered by poor land transport, though the discovery of American territories spurred international trade.

• Society

  Society was structured by the estates system.

• Politics

  Absolute monarchy was the prevailing form of government.

• Culture

  The era saw the rise of critical thinking and experimentation.

The second half of the eighteenth century witnessed significant economic, social,... Continue reading "Ancien Régime: Society, Economy, and 18th-Century Transformations" »

Key Definitions in Population Demography

Census of Population

A periodic registration and publication of demographic, social, cultural, and economic data for the entire population. In Spain, the first census was drafted in 1857, and since 1900, it has been executed every 10 years.

Natural Growth (Vegetative Growth)

The difference between the number of births and deaths occurring in a specific country or region. Natural increase is positive if births exceed deaths, and negative otherwise.

Real Growth

The relationship between the effects of natural increase and the net migration of a population over a given period.

Life Expectancy

The average number of years a person is expected to live in a specific country, often determined based on socioeconomic... Continue reading "Essential Demographic Terms: Population Dynamics & Rates" »

Causes of Imperialism

• Policies and Strategies: The possession of colonies became a yardstick for measuring the greatness of a country, coupled with strategic military and geopolitical reasons.
• Demographic Factors: Colonies provided surplus lands to send excess population, helping to reduce internal tensions in the metropolis.
• Economic Drivers: Increased production during the Second Industrial Revolution necessitated the search for raw materials and new markets for manufactured goods.
• Ideological Justifications: Belief in the superiority of the white race and its mission to "civilize" the world (often referred to as the "White Man's Burden").

Forms of Colonial Rule

Colonial powers established control through various administrative structures:

• Concessions:

... Continue reading "The Rise and Impact of Global Imperialism (1870-1914)" »

The agroexport cycles in Brazil prominently featured sugar and coffee.

Sugar Cycle

The sugar plantations were primarily located in the northeast region of Brazil. They relied on enslaved labor from Africa, with production geared towards the European market. However, soil exhaustion and the increasing difficulty of obtaining labor following the decline of the slave trade hindered the sugar cycle's continuity.

Coffee Cycle

The coffee cycle began in the Rio de Janeiro region, benefiting from the proximity to the port facilitating exports to Europe. Coffee cultivation expanded from Rio de Janeiro to São Paulo, where more favorable soil and climate conditions prevailed. Coffee plantations were organized around large estates. While initially relying... Continue reading "Brazil's Agroexport Cycles: Sugar, Coffee, and Beyond" »