Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Factors Explaining the Decline in Mortality

Sanitary Measures and Socioeconomic Resources

Medical advances and improvements in socioeconomic resources, especially food availability, have contributed significantly to the decline in mortality rates.

A combination of social, demographic, economic, and cultural factors has positively impacted the overall health of the population.

Spatial Distribution of Mortality in Spain

By Autonomous Community

Currently, regions with higher mortality rates include Asturias, Aragón, Baleares, and Galicia. Conversely, the Canary Islands, Madrid, Murcia, Andalusia, and Catalonia have the lowest rates. However, when considering average life expectancy, northern regions show more positive indices than southern regions.... Continue reading "Mortality Decline and Natural Growth in Spain: A Demographic Analysis" »

19th-Century Architecture of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution began in England before expanding across Europe and the rest of the world. This period refers to a series of profound technical and technological revolutions that fundamentally amended building techniques. New materials such as cast iron, glass, and later, concrete were introduced, leading to an increase in the number and size of buildings.

The most significant invention was the steam engine. The second major development was the introduction of mechanization, and the third was the utilization of processed coal. Engineers were responsible for proposing new construction methods, providing responsive solutions to society's problems. Cities needed to reform their infrastructure... Continue reading "Architectural Innovations of the Industrial Revolution" »

Agriculture, Farming, and Rural Land: Key Terms

Farming: Set of tasks performed by humans to obtain products of the land (agriculture, livestock, and forestry).

Intensive Agriculture: Agricultural practice characterized by a large investment in technology or labor that produces high productivity.

Agrociudad: Core of the population, given their size, can be considered a city, but it plays mostly rural functions.

Waters: Sector of ocean space adjacent to the land of a country on which that State exercises sovereign powers.

Sharecropping: Tenancy in which the owner grants the use of land in exchange for a percentage of the crop.

Lease: Tenancy in which the owner grants the use of the land on payment of rent.

Fallow: Traditional agricultural practice... Continue reading "Agriculture, Farming and Rural Land: Key Definitions" »

Context and Document Analysis

This document, titled "The Agrarian Problem," is an economic and political text explaining why the Republican government proposed land reform. It is contained within "Causes of the War of Spain" and was aimed at Spanish society of the time. Its author was Manuel Azaña, Prime Minister of the Republic during the reformist biennium and later president, leading the Popular Front. The central idea of the text is the stark social and economic backwardness of Spain and the proposed solution through the ambitious Republican government's action, particularly the famous land reform.

The Agrarian Problem: An Overview

This large contrast was also seen in the agricultural sector. There were areas of Spain where a single family... Continue reading "Spain's Agrarian Reform: Azaña's Vision for the Republic" »

City Structure

Most towns and cities serve as places of residence and have industries. These are located in different parts of the city; this determines the structure.

Residential Areas

Residential areas occupy the most space. Wealthier inhabitants live in the most elegant parts of the city. Poorer people live in less attractive districts in old buildings.

Service Areas

Cities provide a wide range of services. Many of these services are found in the city center. Politics is the main function of all capital cities. The largest port's main function is trade. Destinations of pilgrims have a primary religious function.

Industrial Areas

Industries were started in the cities. Very little industrial activity takes place inside the city. Most industries are... Continue reading "Urban Structures, Growth, and Networks" »

Types of Rural Settlement

Depending on the mode of grouping rural housing, settlements may be classified as follows:

• Isolated settlement: Dwellings are not grouped into a town or village but are independently distributed throughout the territory. The houses are isolated from each other, separated by fields and meadows, and are far apart. This habitat type is found mostly on the Atlantic coast and in mountain areas with abundant and regular rainfall, such as the Cantabrian Mountains, the Basque Country, and Navarre.
• Dispersed settlement: If there are small towns or villages with few houses around a central core that concentrates small municipal services, we have a dispersed settlement. It is also characteristic of areas with significant rainfall.

Climate Patterns in Spain

In winter, polar air masses move south, and Atlantic storms significantly impact the Atlantic coast of the peninsula but rarely reach the interior. On the map, a cold front associated with a low-pressure system approaches the Atlantic Peninsula while an anticyclone dominates.

In the Mediterranean, storms also originate when hot air masses come into contact with cold air, which usually happens in spring and especially in fall. Fall storms often cause torrential rains of short duration but high intensity.

Biodiversity in Spain

Spain is a place that has a high biodiversity worldwide, ranking second after tropical forests. This feature is due to different causes:

• a) Spain encompasses three major plant domains: The Atlantic

Welfare State: European Social Policy

The Welfare State involves a set of measures and actions by which governments assume responsibility for an increasing number of services and benefits (health, education, environment, housing promotion, unemployment insurance, etc.). The aim is to provide all citizens with decent living conditions to ensure their welfare. There are significant differences in implementation between countries north and south of the Union.

Cohesion Fund

The Cohesion Fund is one of the instruments of regional policy that seeks to attenuate regional economic imbalances within Europe. Established by the Maastricht Treaty, its purpose is to reduce disparities between national economies and facilitate convergence (measured in terms... Continue reading "European Social Policy and Regional Development Instruments" »

1. La globalización and urban space

Since the late twentieth century, the globalized economy has encouraged the emergence of global cities. Global cities concentrate the headquarters of major banks, stock exchanges, etc. Production and trade centers are linked to international markets. To adapt to new global functions, large cities have experienced dramatic transformations in transport infrastructure, telecommunications networks, and other systems, with the consequent rise in land prices.

2. Territorial and social inequalities

The phenomenon of globalization privileges some cities over others, and within the same city it also favors some areas over others. People with higher incomes seek luxury residential areas. In the less privileged parts... Continue reading "Globalization and Urban Space: Cities, Inequality, Environment" »

The Tertiary Sector: Definition and Heterogeneity

The tertiary sector is defined relative to the primary and secondary sectors of economic activity. This sector often serves as a catch-all category, encompassing all activities that do not directly produce tangible goods and do not fit into the other two sectors. These activities are commonly known as services.

It is necessary to stress the inherent heterogeneity of the tertiary sector; some authors even speak of quaternary or advanced decision-making services. Under the designation of services are grouped: trade, hotels, transport and communications, and finance.

Classification of Services

Within this wide variety of services, the following categories can be distinguished:

• Distribution Services: