Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Bourbon Absolutism: Centralization of Power

The authoritarian monarchy of Asturias had already begun a process of power concentration in Castilla. However, in the Crown of Aragon, Navarre, and the Basque Country, their own institutions (such as the Cortes) and a degree of sovereignty had been preserved. Bourbon absolutism, established in France with Louis XIV, was imposed upon Spain. This absolute monarch constituted the very embodiment of the state: the territory belonged to him, and authority emanated from his institutions. He was the supreme head of government and justice. Monarchs were supported by loyal and competent advisors who fought against even the few constraints acting on the prerogatives of the Crown.

Weakness of Spanish Industry

Spain's Integration into the European Union and its Impact on Foreign Economic Specialization

Spain's foreign trade policy is characterized by accelerating economic globalization, increasing trade globally, and the expansion of direct investment and financial capital movements. This has been facilitated by trade liberalization, promoted by institutions like the GATT and its successor, the World Trade Organization (WTO), established in 1995. Spain, whose economic internationalization process started in the 1960s, fully joined this phenomenon of globalization in the 1980s. Its accession to the European Community (now the European Union) in 1986 was essential in this regard.

Spain now has a system of business regulation similar to that of other... Continue reading "Spain's Economic Integration into the European Union" »

Evolution of Latin American Culture: A Predominantly Cultural Mix

The evolution of Latin American culture is predominantly a process of cultural mixing between native, Spanish, and Portuguese influences. The indigenous populations of the Maya, Aztec, and Inca, who had great numerical importance and high cultural development, suffered a sharp decline. The most developed indigenous groups were virtually exterminated. Due to the influence of Iberian culture, there are large populations of the Caribbean and other ethnic sub-cultural entities that differ. Immigration played an important role in the settlement of some parts of Latin America. Between the 17th and 19th centuries, the dense population centers of the high plateau of Mexico, Central America,... Continue reading "Latin America: Demographic Shifts and Cultural Evolution" »

Amazonas State Profile

Topography

Characterized by vast plains interspersed with tepuis, the western part features large rivers like the Orinoco River, which originates in Cerro Chalbaud.

Vegetation

The state boasts natural landscapes with significant tourist and recreational potential. It consists of deciduous forests and dense jungles teeming with wildlife, including epiphytic plants on trees.

Economy

Economic activity in Amazonas State is limited. Most agricultural products are consumed locally, and agriculture is extensive. These activities, along with trade, are the main sources of employment in the region. Amazonas is one of Venezuela's richest states in natural resources, which are largely untapped. The state currently faces border issues... Continue reading "Venezuelan States: Geography, Economy, Natural Resources" »

19th Century Spain: Population Growth and Industrial Transformation

The 19th century witnessed significant population growth in Spain, increasing from approximately 11.5 million in 1800 to 18.6 million. This growth was fueled by several factors:

• Improved birth rates and declining mortality rates
• Better nutrition and overall quality of life
• Increased life expectancy
• Advances in healthcare and medicine

Regions like Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, Asturias, and the Basque Country experienced particularly rapid population growth.

Agricultural Shifts and Rural Exodus

Farmers began leaving rural lands, a phenomenon driven by:

• Mechanization of agriculture
• Abolition of noble privileges
• Concentration of land ownership

Many migrated to urban areas or emigrated to Cuba... Continue reading "19th Century Spain: Population Growth, Industrialization, and Social Change" »

Rural Settlement

Types of Rural Settlement:

• Dispersed Settlement: Population lives in houses, farms, hamlets, and villages scattered around the field.
• Concentrated Settlement: The houses are grouped together, forming villages with amenities like shops and schools.
• Settlement Interlayer: Intermediate between the foregoing, presents isolated buildings, including town centers.

Dispersed Settlement Classes: Buildings

• House or Farm: Building isolated where people do farming activities.
• Farmhouse: Very small group of houses, accompanied by auxiliary constructions.
• Village: Small unit of population, less than a town, comprising houses and other auxiliary buildings.

Rural Communities

Rural communities are the basic units of settlement in rural areas. They can... Continue reading "Rural and Urban Settlements: Types, Communities, and Analysis" »

Euskal Herria: End of the Middle Ages

By the end of the Middle Ages, the seven territories forming Euskal Herria were already constituted as we know them today. In Navarre, Pamplona was established early. In continental Europe, struggles between the crowns of France, Castile, Aragon, and England were determining factors.

The French-Spanish Border

The French state is on one side, with Lapurdi, Lower Navarre, and Soule in the Atlantic Pyrenees. Across the border is the Spanish state, organized since 1978 into autonomous communities.

• The Basque Autonomous Community has a status of autonomy and economic agreement.
• The autonomous community of Navarre retains its privileges with a "pacted" law.

The Autonomous Community of the Basque Country's Constitution

The... Continue reading "Euskal Herria: History, Governance, and Territorial Organization" »

Ancient Civilizations: A Historical Overview

1. Prehistory encompasses the vast period from the emergence of humankind to the advent of writing. It is broadly divided into two major epochs: the Stone Age and the Metal Age.

1.1 The Dawn of Humanity

The earliest humans (hominids) are characterized by their adoption of an upright posture and their ability to create tools and utensils.

1.2 The Stone Age

The Stone Age is further subdivided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age) periods, separated by the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age).

a) Paleolithic Era

• Humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers, relying on hunting, fishing, and gathering for sustenance.
• Life was primarily outdoors, often along riverbanks or in caves.
• The mastery of

Livestock Farming: An Overview

Traditional livestock farming involved diverse species coexisting in small farms, utilizing older techniques. Current extensive livestock systems have undergone significant structural transformations.

A) Structural Changes in Livestock Density

These transformations can be summarized by increased specialization:

• Livestock farming tends to specialize in meat or milk production. This has led to the replacement of native breeds with foreign breeds and the near-total disappearance of mixed breeds. However, there's some recovery of native breeds, supported by European Union grants.
• Extensive livestock farming focuses on weight gain in cattle grazing in meadows.
• Intensive or industrial factory farming, where animals are fed

Agricultural Landscape Features

Agricultural practices change the landscape to obtain products from nature. This has evolved to increase the utilization of the area, cropping systems, and support the population.

Agricultural Plots

A plot is a division of a single farm, a single piece of land dedicated to cultivation. Plots differ in shape, and their limits can be distinguished.

Types of Plots:

• Open Fields: Open plots without fences, typically small in area and with regular shapes.
• Enclosed Fields (Closos): Large and irregular parcels enclosed with walls or fences.

Market Agriculture

Market agriculture aims to increase sales and reduce costs through several strategies:

• Mechanization: Mechanizing field work saves labor, increases production, and reduces