Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Around 40,000 BCE, the first humans lived in China. Cultivation began around the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers. The Yangshao and Longshan cultures were the earliest settlements. There was a big difference between northern and southern agriculture. The Tibetan Plateau and the Gobi Desert were the natural barriers of the Chinese civilization.

The Shang Dynasty

The Xia was the first dynasty in China, around 2000 BCE. It was replaced by the Shang Dynasty around 1600 BCE. Shang China was governed by a warrior aristocracy. The rulers in Anyang ruled with local and central bureaucracy, but it wasn't hereditary. The king's position was demonstrated by the large sacrifices at his death. He was an intermediary between Heaven and Earth. Socially, the village/... Continue reading "Ancient China: From Prehistory to the Qin Dynasty" »

Social Groups

The growth of cities transformed the organization of feudal society. Many artisans and traders were not dependent on the feudal lords. This group was the bourgeoisie.

Transportation Advancements in the 1800s

What four factors significantly reduced the cost of transporting goods in the 1800s?

• National Road
• Canals
• Steamboats
• Railroads

Communication Advancements in the 1800s

Name at least three advancements in communication during the 1800s.

• Samuel F. B. Morse's Telegraph
• Perfection of the power press
• Revolutionized journalism

Characteristics of the 1800s

Name at least three characteristics of the 1800s.

• Population Growth: The American population doubled approximately every 22 years, with 600,000 immigrants arriving in the 1830s.
• Westward Expansion: Vast areas of land opened up for settlement.
• Land speculators played a leading role in the settlement of the West by selling land, partially on credit.

Manifest Destiny and Its

Germanic Invasions

The Western Roman Empire followed a different evolution to the Byzantine Empire, as the lands of Western Europe were occupied by peoples of Germanic origin.

1. Germanic Tribes

The Germanic people came from Central Asia and settled for centuries near the borders of the Roman Empire. They were nomadic people who did not build cities, as they mainly lived in villages and camps. They mainly worked in farming and were organised into tribes, led by a tribal chief who was elected by an assembly of free men. The leader was the military chief and ruled with the help of warriors, with whom he established pacts of loyalty.

An increase in population and the need to seek pastures for cattle caused the Germanic people to move to western Europe.... Continue reading "The Germanic Invasions and the Fall of Rome" »

Causes of the Great Depression

• Over-expansion of Credit
• High Capital Surplus
• Industrial Over-expansion
• Technological Unemployment
• Agricultural Over-expansion
• Imbalance in International Trade

A New American Paradox: Breadlines and Soup Kitchens

Although soup kitchens were not unknown to the American lower classes before 1929, they grew as the economic depression intensified and peaked by 1932.

When soup kitchens first appeared, they were run by churches or private charities. The Capuchin Services Center in southeast Detroit, for example, served 1,500 to 3,000 people a day. That center opened on November 2, 1929.

Private volunteers were also important in setting up soup kitchens all over the US. By the mid-1930s, state and federal governments also were... Continue reading "Great Depression: Causes, Soup Kitchens, and Hoovervilles" »

Agricultural Revolution

The Agricultural Revolution was a series of profound changes in the primary sector during the 18th century. It encompassed technical advancements and alterations in rural land management (plots and buildings). The driving force was population growth, spurred by improved hygiene, better medicine, a decline in major epidemics, and fewer wars. After the abandonment of mercantilism, an increase in productivity became essential.

First Industrial Revolution

The First Industrial Revolution was characterized by a series of transformations resulting from the introduction of machines into workshops. This led to the emergence of new social classes and political institutions. It began in the 1760s in England and concluded around 1830.... Continue reading "Industrial Revolutions: Key Developments & Impacts" »

Class-Based Society Structure During Industrialization

During the Industrial Revolution, society was distinctly divided into three main groups:

The Upper Class

Comprising the wealthiest individuals, this class included:

• Wealthy Bourgeoisie: Obtained large profits from industrial ventures, becoming the dominant social group.
• Nobility: Received high incomes from their extensive agricultural holdings.

The Middle Class

This group represented a medium level of wealth and included:

• Civil servants, lawyers, and doctors.
• Small-scale merchants and craftspeople.
• Farmers with small agricultural holdings.

The Working Class

Living in extreme poverty, this class consisted of:

• Industrial workers who toiled in factories.
• Tenant farmers and agricultural labourers.

Life in

The Second Industrial Revolution and Imperialism

The Second Industrial Revolution (1870-1914)

The Second Industrial Revolution, taking place between 1870 and 1914, was characterized by rapid industrialization. This was primarily due to the increased importance of the financial sector in industry and the rise of finance capitalism.

Innovations and Changes

Production increased because of the following factors:

• New sources of finance: To establish businesses, owners had to find new sources of finance, such as joint-stock companies, the stock exchange, and banks.
• New technological advances: Improvements to the Bessemer converter, dynamite, stainless steel, and artificial fibers.
• New business structures: Cartels, holding companies, and trusts.
• New sources

Importance of World Trade

International trade is important because of the unequal distribution of natural resources, the differences between the economies of different states, and the interests of large companies in capturing part of the world market.

Key Global Trading Regions

• USA: The world's main importer and the second largest exporter. Its production is higher than any other country.
• EU: The world's largest trading bloc. Member states are small but wealthy, and they import and export a great many products.
• Australia: Does a lot of trade in the Pacific and with East Asian countries.
• Africa: Contributes little to international trade because of its level of poverty.
• Middle Eastern Countries (Saudi Arabia): Primarily export oil.
• Southeast Asia: Do

The Road to Brazilian Independence (1815–1822)

Brazil was inhabited by the royal court led by King Dom João VI. In 1815, he named his son, Dom Pedro, the Regent Prince, giving him authority to govern Brazil when the King left or died.

The Constitutional Crisis and the Return to Portugal

In 1820, Portugal experienced the Constitutional Revolution, initiated by liberal constitutionalists. This movement led to the constituent assembly's meeting (known as the Cortes), which decided to create the first constitution of the kingdom and to demand the return of King Dom João from Brazil.

On April 26, 1821, the King left Brazil in the hands of his son Dom Pedro and returned to Portugal.

Military Manipulation and Dom Pedro's Resolve

The military took the... Continue reading "Dom Pedro I and Brazil's Declaration of Independence (1822)" »