Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Evolution of Gothic Architecture

Gothic architecture found its ultimate expression in the cathedral, with the French model serving as its most representative form. A new spirituality, combined with technical and structural innovations, allowed for the construction of taller and brighter buildings, even as they maintained the Latin cross plan.

Key Structural Elements

The primary elements driving this change included:

• The pointed arch and the ribbed vault: These lighter structures allowed weight to be distributed onto columns and pillars.
• Stained glass windows: Thanks to these structural shifts, architects were able to open large windows richly decorated with stained glass.
• Flying buttresses and spurs: To counterbalance the weight of the vaults

History of Agriculture

Agriculture, the practice of cultivating land to obtain food, appeared in the Neolithic period. In the late 18th century, the UK experienced an agricultural revolution. This led many peasants (campesinos) to move to cities in search of work, starting a slow process of rural depopulation.

Agriculture Today

• Developed Countries: Agriculture employs less than 5% of the active population and achieves high productivity.
• Underdeveloped Countries: Agriculture employs the majority of the population, often using traditional farming techniques, resulting in low productivity.

Factors Influencing Agricultural Use

Physical Factors

• Climate: Each plant requires specific temperature and humidity conditions to grow.
• Relief: Altitude and the slope

Phase 1: Hunter-Gatherer (1,000,000 - 10,000 BCE)

1.5 million years ago, populations of Australopithecus were being replaced by those of Homo habilis, which gave way to Homo erectus. The first modern humans, Homo sapiens, appeared in northwest Africa. Immersed in the savanna, and subjected to the same rules as other animals, the first human hunters and gatherers were exposed to extremes of climate, often suffering from hunger. This was soon complemented by the development of small animal hunting. Early humans were omnivorous, and precisely in its power spectrum is a key to its success. The other is the management of natural elements to make tools.

Very early, humans tried to understand and master nature: seeking shelter, finding water, understanding... Continue reading "Human Evolution: From Hunter-Gatherer to Agriculture" »

Understanding Population Pyramid Structure

The two histogram bars are arranged horizontally, typically along the X-axis (abscissa). Conventionally, the bars on the left indicate the age groups of males, and those on the right represent the female population.

The Y-axis (ordinate) identifies the groups of age, usually in five-year intervals (e.g., 0–4, 5–9, 10–14, etc.). The bar representing the lowest age group is placed at the bottom of the chart, with ages gradually increasing towards the top.

When detailed information is available (such as births and deaths per year), the population pyramid can be drawn with corresponding annual details (bars representing year-to-year data). The scale of the X-axis typically represents absolute values... Continue reading "Population Pyramids: Structure and Sex Differences in Demographics" »

The United States: From Civil War to Economic Powerhouse

The Civil War's Impact on the US Economy

The United States began its industrialization later than some European nations. The process was initially slow until the advent of the Civil War. This war resulted in a strong acceleration of industrial growth, ultimately leading the US to become the world's leading power. The principal drawback for European populations was that the industrialization process in the US was initially concentrated in the East and needed to extend throughout the entire country.

The US had several advantages:

• Vast, untouched lands.
• Most of the population was of European origin, unlike Asian industries. The European population that had not been absorbed by European industries

Spain's Migration History: 20th Century Shifts

During the past two centuries, and especially since the end of the 19th century, Spain experienced a major migration process known as interior-exterior.

The Rural Exodus and Industrialization (Mid-20th Century)

This migration process is closely related to mid-twentieth-century industrialization, leading to the **rural exodus**—the displacement of the population from agricultural areas to industrial and urban centers.

Post-Franco Intensification and Tourism Zones

From the mid-twentieth century, this process intensified, coinciding with the developmental stage of the Franco regime, which targeted not only industrial areas but also emerging tourist zones.

From the mid-1970s, the process slowed down but... Continue reading "Spain's Migration History: From Emigration to Immigration Hub" »

2. The Spanish Agriculture in Europe. The EU action in agriculture is reflected in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Until 1980, the CAP was very protective and self-sufficient, ensuring that Europe could export while also increasing the living standards of farmers. The mechanism of action is as follows: farmers received guaranteed product prices higher than the international market. If there were surpluses, they were exported, and if imported products were present, taxes were imposed that increased their prices to the level of European products, allowing recovery. The EU provides subsidies to its farmers, similar to those in the U.S. or Japan. With this mechanism, farmers tended to increase their production until the model failed because... Continue reading "Impact of CAP on Spanish Agriculture in Europe" »

Key Features of the Second Industrial Revolution (1870–1970)

The Second Industrial Revolution (IR II) marked a profound shift, characterized by the deep integration of science and technology between 1870 and 1970. Germany and the United States emerged as pioneers during this era.

Technological and Sectoral Shifts

• Agrarian Revolution (until 1930): Driven by innovations like artificial fertilizers and the combustion engine.
• Metallurgy Progress: Advances in siderometallurgy, including Martin-Siemens furnaces, purified iron impurities. This era also saw the widespread use of aluminum.
• Leading Sectors: Chemistry became a dominant industry, alongside the rapid growth of the automotive sector and modern sales techniques (mail order, advertising, installment

Trade involves the purchase and sale of goods in order to meet the needs of the population. This former activity has allowed contact between cultures. Subsequently, with the onset of currency, it was possible to give a more accurate value to goods.

Domestic Trade

Domestic trade takes place within a country.

• Wholesale: Carried out by wholesalers who purchase large quantities of goods, sold to producers and other traders.
• Retail: Involves selling small quantities directly to the public.

Foreign Trade

Foreign trade is what a country conducts with other countries, involving exports and imports.

The Trade Balance

The trade balance is the difference between the value of goods a country sells abroad and the value of goods it buys from other countries:

• If the

The Second Industrial Revolution: Economic & Technological Shifts

The depression of 1873 spurred a process of industrial and financial concentration. This era saw attempts to eliminate competition and create monopolies within specific markets, which eventually extended across national borders. Associations emerged where firms discussed production prices and deals for the domestic market.

Forms of Enterprise Concentration

• Cartels: Conventions among companies to reduce or eliminate competition.
• Trusts: Mergers of companies.
• Holdings: Financial companies involved in various businesses.

These concentrations developed especially in the U.S. and Germany. The power of some trusts often exceeded that of governments, making anti-trust laws difficult to... Continue reading "Second Industrial Revolution: Economic Shifts & Key Innovations" »