Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Geography of Spain and Andalusia

Relief Features

The very heart of the Iberian Peninsula is a plateau, which is centrally crossed by the Mountains of Northern Toledo. Through this plateau run the Duero River to the north, and the Tagus and Guadiana Rivers to the south.

Surrounding the plateau are the Galician Massif, the Iberian System, the Cantabrian Mountains, and the Southern Highlands of the plateau, known as the Sierra Morena. Outside the main plateau, other significant ranges include the Pyrenees, the Basque Mountains, the Catalan Coastal Mountain Range, and the Baetic Systems.

Outside the plateau, there are also the depressions of the Ebro and the Guadalquivir rivers. In Andalusia, two distinct Baetic mountain ranges can be differentiated:... Continue reading "Geography and Ecosystems of Spain, Andalusia, and Europe" »

Tourism

Causes of Development

• Five business days: From Monday to Friday, a long weekend, and a period of paid vacation each year.
• Pensions for invalidity and old age: Workers freed from precautionary savings.
• Use of cars, planes, etc.

Tourist Travel

From the emitting center, tourist flows are directed towards receptor cities depending on the distance. Nuclei may be:

• Near tourist centers: Located within a radius of up to 200 km from the emitting centers. Tourists stay in hotels, with residents, camping, etc.
• Intermediate tourist centers: Located within a radius of 2,000 km from the emitting centers.
• Distant tourist centers: Located 2,000 miles from the broadcasting centers. This space includes, among others, most cultural tours and also vacation areas

Economic Activity Fundamentals

Economic geography is the science that studies the aspects related to the economy. The phases of economic activity are:

• Production: Where goods and services are generated.
• Distribution: The distribution of these goods and services in establishments.
• Consumption: Consumers acquire these products to satisfy their needs.

Economic Sectors

Economic activities can be grouped into sectors:

• Primary Sector: Includes efforts to obtain food and raw materials (agriculture, livestock, fisheries).
• Secondary Sector: Comprises the activities that transform raw materials into processed products (e.g., food industry, chemical industry).
• Tertiary Sector: Includes activities that provide services to citizens (e.g., health, education, transport)

Economy of Al-Andalus

Al-Andalus was integrated into the economy of the Islamic Mediterranean. The Muslim population focused on self-sufficiency, with agriculture being the predominant activity. A growing industry and consolidated commerce also contributed to a solid economic structure.

Agriculture in Al-Andalus

Agricultural practices and irrigation infrastructure were advanced, incorporating new features like the water wheel. Crops like citrus fruits, rice, cotton, and saffron were introduced or spread. Major traditional crops included:

• Cereals
• Grapes
• Olives

Livestock

Livestock development included sheep and horses. Beekeeping also saw significant growth.

Mining

Important mining activities included the extraction of lead, copper, and cinnabar. Gold... Continue reading "Life in Islamic Spain: Economy, People, Arts" »

Types of Services

Business Services: Market research, business banking services.

People Services: Health, education, culture.

Tertiary Causes of Growth

• The mechanization of production processes of primary and secondary sectors, which use little labor.
• The necessity of services in all phases of the production process: design, studies, market, distribution.
• Increasing the standard of living of the population, which causes more consumption of services.
• The state, in some countries, has as a priority to offer the whole of the citizenry a series of services that guarantee their well-being.
• The importance that research on information and communication have achieved in today's world.

Social Services: Fundamental activities are to ensure the welfare of people.... Continue reading "Service Sector: Types, Trade, and Tourism Impacts" »

3 European Integration

The treaty to join the European Community was signed on June 12, 1985. This culminated a process initiated by the UCD, but mainly due to France's reluctance, seeing Spain as a strong competitor for Mediterranean agricultural products. In January 1986, Spain and Portugal joined the European Union, and Spain underwent a period of economic revival. In 1992, the Treaty of Maastricht was signed. At the end of 1992, the initial euphoria gave way to a serious economic crisis fueled by strong investments and a global recession. Increased inflation sank consumer consumption, leading to business failures and rising unemployment. Spain's economy saw a policy of modernizing public expenditure, reducing job-containment salaries, publishing... Continue reading "Spain's European Integration and Societal Transformation" »

Ecosystems, Resources, and Sustainable Development

Ecosystem Components

An ecosystem consists of a physical environment, characterized by environmental factors such as temperature or salinity, the organisms that live there and form a community, and the relationships established between them.

• Biotope: The characteristic of the physical environment of a certain area, i.e., the non-living part.
• Biocenosis: The community of an ecosystem, i.e., the whole of the same species within the ecosystem.

Human Impact and Resources

Mankind gets resources from ecosystems and, consequently, produces impacts on the natural environment. These impacts are subject to natural hazards and eventually produce waste.

Natural resources: Everything that humanity derives from... Continue reading "Understanding Ecosystems and Sustainable Practices" »

Castile: Government Structure

Central Government

• The Royal Council

  An advisory and administrative body composed of legal experts and noble prelates.

• The Royal Court and Chancilleries

  Officials serving the king included the:

  • Butler
  • Chancellor
  • Constable (chief of the royal army)
  • Admiral (chief of the naval school)

  The Chancillerías served as high courts of justice.

• The Audiencia (Court of Justice)

  The primary judicial body.

• The Hacienda (Treasury)

  Responsible for collecting taxes, such as the alcabala (sales tax) and various tributes. Its operations were controlled by the Contaduría Mayor de Cuentas (Chief Accounting Office).

Territorial Administration

• Provincial Divisions

  Castile was divided into seven provinces, including the Adelantamientos (border regions)

Urban Space Transformation

From the end of the twentieth century, global cities have transformed urban space. Global cities are privileged places where major banks, stock markets, and financial production centers are concentrated. They are the most advanced services at a global level. They control capital, information technology, and all needed products.

New York, London, and Tokyo are indisputable centers of the global economy, representing global cities.

Other Global Economic Centers

Other important centers include Hong Kong, Osaka, Frankfurt, Paris, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Amsterdam, and Milan. Less developed cities use similar functions, e.g., Mexico City.

Transformations in Large Cities

To accommodate growth, large cities have been transformed,... Continue reading "Urban Transformation: Global Cities and Dispersed Areas" »

Ancient Egyptian Social Classes

The Privileged Class

Pharaoh: Considered a god-king, the pharaoh held absolute power over the land, controlling vast wealth and resources.

Nobility: Members of the pharaoh's family, they governed provinces, possessed extensive lands, and resided in opulent palaces.

Priests: They conducted religious rituals and held significant influence, managing temples and their associated wealth.

Scribes: Officials responsible for writing documents, managing records, and overseeing imports. While not considered privileged, they held a vital role in society.

Free People and Slaves

Peasants: The largest social group, they lived modestly, working the land to feed their families and pay taxes to the pharaoh, nobles, and priests.

Artisans: