Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Understanding Population Pyramid Structure

The two histogram bars are arranged horizontally, typically along the X-axis (abscissa). Conventionally, the bars on the left indicate the age groups of males, and those on the right represent the female population.

The Y-axis (ordinate) identifies the groups of age, usually in five-year intervals (e.g., 0–4, 5–9, 10–14, etc.). The bar representing the lowest age group is placed at the bottom of the chart, with ages gradually increasing towards the top.

When detailed information is available (such as births and deaths per year), the population pyramid can be drawn with corresponding annual details (bars representing year-to-year data). The scale of the X-axis typically represents absolute values... Continue reading "Population Pyramids: Structure and Sex Differences in Demographics" »

The United States: From Civil War to Economic Powerhouse

The Civil War's Impact on the US Economy

The United States began its industrialization later than some European nations. The process was initially slow until the advent of the Civil War. This war resulted in a strong acceleration of industrial growth, ultimately leading the US to become the world's leading power. The principal drawback for European populations was that the industrialization process in the US was initially concentrated in the East and needed to extend throughout the entire country.

The US had several advantages:

• Vast, untouched lands.
• Most of the population was of European origin, unlike Asian industries. The European population that had not been absorbed by European industries

2. The Spanish Agriculture in Europe. The EU action in agriculture is reflected in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Until 1980, the CAP was very protective and self-sufficient, ensuring that Europe could export while also increasing the living standards of farmers. The mechanism of action is as follows: farmers received guaranteed product prices higher than the international market. If there were surpluses, they were exported, and if imported products were present, taxes were imposed that increased their prices to the level of European products, allowing recovery. The EU provides subsidies to its farmers, similar to those in the U.S. or Japan. With this mechanism, farmers tended to increase their production until the model failed because... Continue reading "Impact of CAP on Spanish Agriculture in Europe" »

Key Features of the Second Industrial Revolution (1870–1970)

The Second Industrial Revolution (IR II) marked a profound shift, characterized by the deep integration of science and technology between 1870 and 1970. Germany and the United States emerged as pioneers during this era.

Technological and Sectoral Shifts

• Agrarian Revolution (until 1930): Driven by innovations like artificial fertilizers and the combustion engine.
• Metallurgy Progress: Advances in siderometallurgy, including Martin-Siemens furnaces, purified iron impurities. This era also saw the widespread use of aluminum.
• Leading Sectors: Chemistry became a dominant industry, alongside the rapid growth of the automotive sector and modern sales techniques (mail order, advertising, installment

Trade involves the purchase and sale of goods in order to meet the needs of the population. This former activity has allowed contact between cultures. Subsequently, with the onset of currency, it was possible to give a more accurate value to goods.

Domestic Trade

Domestic trade takes place within a country.

• Wholesale: Carried out by wholesalers who purchase large quantities of goods, sold to producers and other traders.
• Retail: Involves selling small quantities directly to the public.

Foreign Trade

Foreign trade is what a country conducts with other countries, involving exports and imports.

The Trade Balance

The trade balance is the difference between the value of goods a country sells abroad and the value of goods it buys from other countries:

• If the

The Second Industrial Revolution: Economic & Technological Shifts

The depression of 1873 spurred a process of industrial and financial concentration. This era saw attempts to eliminate competition and create monopolies within specific markets, which eventually extended across national borders. Associations emerged where firms discussed production prices and deals for the domestic market.

Forms of Enterprise Concentration

• Cartels: Conventions among companies to reduce or eliminate competition.
• Trusts: Mergers of companies.
• Holdings: Financial companies involved in various businesses.

These concentrations developed especially in the U.S. and Germany. The power of some trusts often exceeded that of governments, making anti-trust laws difficult to... Continue reading "Second Industrial Revolution: Economic Shifts & Key Innovations" »

Historical and Political Concepts

Terror

A phase in the French Revolution characterized by radicalization, with Robespierre at its head.

Constituent Assembly

A collegial body tasked with reforming a constitution, endowed with full powers, or a constitutional power to which all public bodies are subjected.

Directory

A government divided among five people, called consuls, designed to avoid a tyrannical nature and maintain moderation.

Holy Alliance

Formed by Prussia, Russia, and France, it had an anti-liberal character, defending absolutism. Its members formed an alliance between the Throne and the Altar.

Revolt of the Privileged

The protagonists were the aristocracy and clergy who opposed the proposals of Louis XVI's minister. To avoid the Treasury's bankruptcy,... Continue reading "Essential Historical and Economic Concepts Explained" »

The Economic Importance of Agriculture in Spain

Contribution to GDP

Despite increased agricultural production, agriculture's share of Spain's GDP has declined from 40% in 1950 to about 3.5% today. This shift is attributed to industrialization and outsourcing, which have diminished the economic prominence of farming. The agricultural sector exhibits low productivity per worker, employing 7.5% of assets to generate just 3.5% of GDP.

Role in Foreign Trade

Until the 1970s, agricultural products were primary Spanish exports, consistently exceeding imports. Since then, the role of agriculture in foreign trade has decreased, with imports occasionally surpassing exports. Agricultural exports currently account for approximately 15% of total exports, including... Continue reading "Challenges and Opportunities in Spanish Agriculture" »

The German Nazi State and Party Merger

In Germany, the state exhibited greater strength. There was a merger between the state and the Nazi Party. The fact that the rise of the Nazi Party proceeded more slowly than in the case of Italian Fascism forced numerous initial adaptation efforts and negotiations with representatives of the traditional German right.

The need to win over the electorate made the Nazis exercise restraint and assume a relative willingness to express commitments set forth in the rule of law. Ultimately, Adolf Hitler gained undeniably greater power than Benito Mussolini.

The Spread of Related Movements in Europe

Beyond Italian Fascism and German National Socialism, many other movements were more or less related to them.

Fascist

Business and Trade

Business consists of buying and selling goods to satisfy the needs of the population, performed by exchanging products for other products (barter).

Domestic Trade

Occurs within a country:

• Wholesale: Wholesalers buy large quantities of goods and sell them to other traders or companies.
• Retail: It sells directly to the public in small quantities.

International Trade

What a country conducts with other countries, including both exports and imports. It is collected in the trade balance and the balance of payments.

• Trade Balance: The difference between what a country sells goods abroad and what it buys from other countries.
• Balance of Payments: Records all economic exchanges of a country, both material goods, services, or financial.
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