Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Industrial Revolution

Concept

The Industrial Revolution, spanning the latter half of the 18th century and the early 19th century, began in England and spread across continental Europe. This period witnessed the most significant socioeconomic, technological, and cultural transformations in human history since the Neolithic era.

Causes

• Agricultural Evolution: Increased production resulted from investments in new technologies, farming systems, and improved fertilizer use.
• Commercial Capital Development: Machines revolutionized transportation and communication, transforming employer-employee relationships into primarily labor-based exchanges for profit.
• Socio-demographic Shifts: Agricultural modernization, coupled with advancements in medicine and

Estuary

Landforms produced at the mouth of a river when its amplitude penetrates inland. They are usually good places for communication, due to the mixture of currents.

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

The Common Agricultural Policy, or CAP, was created in 1961 (Spain joined in 1986) in order to ensure the living standards of farmers, market stability, and reasonable prices in supplies to consumers.

Vegetative Growth

Vegetative growth data is used in demographic studies to express the difference between birth and death rates. It can be positive (population increases) or negative (population falls).

Black Economy

The black economy encompasses economic activities taking place outside the established legal channels, therefore, without paying taxes, Social... Continue reading "Key Geographic and Economic Terms Defined" »

Argentina's Geographic Characteristics

Territorial Form

The form is a particular characteristic of a State's territory, which is of interest to political geography. It is defined by international boundaries, forming the country's perimeter. Several denominations have been applied to characterize the shape of Argentina:

• Longitudinal Shape: Due to its great development in the north-south direction, which implies a wide variety of climates and diversified natural resources.
• Appendicular Shape: This refers to the province of Misiones, which penetrates like a wedge into the territories of neighboring countries.
• Triangular Shape: The longer leg in the west is represented by the border with Chile. The shorter leg coincides with the boundary lines that

Venezuela's Diverse Climate Zones

Venezuela experiences a wide range of climatic conditions. Rainfall varies significantly, from less than 400 mm annually in coastal areas to over 4000 mm per year in the south. Average daily temperatures range from above 28°C to below 0°C in the Andean highlands.

According to the Köppen climate classification, Venezuela has the following climate types:

• Tropical Desert (Arid)

  Found in coastal areas of Falcón and Sucre, the Gulf of Cariaco, the islands of Coche and Cubagua, and the Restinga area on Margarita Island.

• Tropical Steppe (Semiarid)

  Located in the northern parts of Zulia and Falcón, the Lara-Falcón depression, the central coastal area, the Unare depression, parts of Sucre state towards the Gulf of Cariaco,

Livestock Farming Systems

Extensive Livestock Farming (Pasture-Based)

Animals are kept outdoors and feed on natural pastures. This is an extensive livestock system primarily intended for meat production.

Intensive Livestock Farming (Feedlot)

Cattle are concentrated in barns and farms and fed artificial feed. This is an intensive breeding system employing advanced technology.

Semi-Intensive Livestock Farming

This is a mixed system of cattle ranching. Cattle stay outdoors in summer and graze on grass; during grass shortages, they are kept in stables and fed with feed.

Nomadic Livestock Farming

Characterized by the continuous mobility of pastoralists and their herds in search of natural pasture.

Transhumant Livestock Farming

Involves the seasonal movement

Population Density and Distribution

Understanding Population Density

Population density is the result of dividing the number of inhabitants of a territory by its surface area. It is expressed in inhabitants per km².

Density = Population / Area (km²)

Global Population Distribution Patterns

A very uneven distribution is observed globally:

• The main areas of population concentration (high density) are found in East Asia, South Asia, and the Central and Western U.S. Northwest (more than 250 inhabitants per km²).
• Low-population density areas include Siberia, northern Canada, the Sahara Desert, the Amazon Basin, and Australia (less than 10 inhabitants per km²).
• The Antarctic Continent is largely uninhabited.

Factors Influencing World Population Distribution

Several... Continue reading "Understanding Global Population Dynamics and Demographic Trends" »

Industries in Argentina

Argentina was a major exporter of agricultural products and imported much of the manufactured products it consumed from Europe. The increase in population and the possibility of importing machinery from Europe favored the emergence of local industry, which took advantage of the raw material that was produced in the country. Many settled in Buenos Aires: large refrigerators, flour mills, food factories, the production of footwear, etc.

The Impact of the Global Crisis in Argentina

The main countries closed their economies, reduced their imports, and defaulted. Furthermore, international prices of primary products fell sharply. The fall in revenues from commodities and the state reduced the level of economic activity.

President

Atlantic Rivers of Europe

The rivers on the Atlantic side of Europe are among the continent's mightiest. Precipitation occurs throughout the year, notably in the basins of the Vistula (Poland), Elbe (Germany), Rhine, Loire, and Seine (France), and Tagus (Spain). Spain's Atlantic rivers present two distinct profiles:

• Galician rivers are short, except for the Minho, and flow through wet areas.
• The remaining rivers are long with substantial flow at their mouths and numerous tributaries. Key rivers include the Duero, Tajo, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir.

Geographic Terms:

• Terrace: A leveled step on a mountainside, often used for cultivation.
• Torrent: A watercourse traversing a mountain slope only during the rainy season, characterized by large floods.
• Inland

Adarve

An impasse or cul-de-sac.

Periurban Area or Belt

An area located on the outskirts of a city, combining different land uses as a result of the concentration of various activities.

Suburban Area

An area characterized by a continuous gradation between rural and urban landscapes.

Faubourg

A suburb or an area outside the formal precincts of a town to which it administratively or historically belongs.

Old Town / Historic Center

The oldest part of a town or city.

CBD (Central Business District)

The commercial and business core of an urban area.

City Center

The original, nuclear part of a city, which concentrates many of its primary functions.

City

A human settlement with a significant population concentration, the definition of which varies by country.

Dormitory

Spain's Economy Under Franco: Autarky and Economic Stagnation

In 1939, after the Spanish Civil War, the nation struggled with the collapse of its agriculture and livestock sectors, alongside the destruction of communications, factories, and infrastructure. The ongoing hunger and ration cards were the hallmarks of the postguerra (post-war period). The reality of economic policy in the early days of the Franco regime was marked by autarky and international isolation. Autarky, as an economic policy, aims to utilize a nation's own resources to avoid relying on foreign trade. Ideally, it strives for self-reliance and implies state intervention in economic matters. The misery of the population caused outbreaks of epidemics such as tuberculosis. Food... Continue reading "Spain's Economy Under Franco: Autarky to Development" »