Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Meseta Central

The Meseta Central is a high plain located at an altitude of about 600-800 meters. It was formed primarily by the erosion of the Hesperian Massif, which emerged during the Hercynian orogeny. In the Tertiary Era, it was deformed, and the plateau was largely reshaped by the Alpine orogeny. Three main units can be distinguished:

A) The Old Paleozoic Basement

Today, it only occupies the western part of the peninsula. The erosion of Tertiary materials that covered the basement has exposed primary peneplains. These are elevations due to erosion or gently undulating surfaces. The peneplains feature inselbergs (very hard rocks). In areas where the peneplain contacts the sedimentary basins of the plateau, rivers create deep gorges.

B)

Al-Andalus: Muslim Military Occupation of the Iberian Peninsula

Internal crises and the expansionist movement of the Visigoths and Islam (634) led to rivalries for throne succession. When Agila (Visigoth king) died, the Duke of Betica led a revolt and occupied the throne, resulting in a civil war. The Visigoths then asked for help from Muslims in North Africa. Because of internal disputes, Governor Musa could consider conquering the Peninsula and Ceuta. Musa (711) started an expedition with 7,000 men to the peninsula, followed by another 5,000. The showdown was at Guadalete, where the Visigoths lost Roderic. They conquered the peninsula shortly and easily, showing tolerance to Christians and Jews who defended their lost land rights. Those who... Continue reading "Al-Andalus: History, Society, and Culture in Medieval Spain" »

Types of Industrial Zones

Metropolitan Crowns

Several types of industrial zones exist. Metropolitan crowns in outlying urban areas have declined. In the process of replanting, they are recipients of Public Employment Offices (PEO). Some cases involve traditional industries relocated from metropolitan core areas, seeking to reduce costs and do business. These industries are located in industrial estates. In other cases, the crowns attract innovative companies that are installed in technological parks.

Peri-Urban Fringes

These are in the transition zone between the urban and industrial rural areas. They are small, thinly capitalized, and in need of unskilled and flexible labor. They engage in traditional production jobs, outsourcing, or processing... Continue reading "Industrial Zones: Types, Causes, and Implications" »

Primary Sector Activities

The primary sector encompasses activities performed to take advantage of natural resources, including agriculture, livestock, fisheries, and mining.

Agricultural Area

• Biotechnology
• Machinery
• Individual or collective smallholdings, large estates

Direct: The owner's work. Indirect: Landholding changes, cash crops, or leases.

Structure

• Small, medium, and large farms
• Regular or irregular bocage
• Open fields or fenced fields

Agriculture

• Rainfed Crops: Utilizing rainwater
• Monoculture: Cultivating one or a few crops
• Polyculture: Growing multiple crops and orchards

Examples include Mediterranean crops such as olives, vines, wheat (rainfed), beets, and cotton (irrigation and monoculture).

Maximum yield is achieved when capital investment is... Continue reading "Understanding the Primary and Secondary Sectors of Industry" »

The Second Industrial Revolution

Business Concentrations: Cartels, Trusts, and Holding Companies

A cartel is an agreement among manufacturers of certain products to reduce or eliminate competition. This agreement often involves fixing prices or allocating clientele. A trust is a fusion resulting from various administrations or activities devoted to the same or different phases of a production process. A holding company is a financial company that invests in and controls various administrations. These giant concentrations developed in the U.S. and Germany. Some industrial powers, like the United States, enacted anti-trust laws that forbade actions hindering competition or creating monopolies.

Economic Protectionism

Economic protectionism consisted... Continue reading "Second Industrial Revolution: Technological Advancements & Global Impact" »

Spanish Industrial Area Development

Industrial areas are core components of metropolitan regions, particularly in Madrid and Barcelona, which have become leading industrial centers in Spain. Their evolution is marked by contradictory trends:

• Sinking or replanting of mature sectors.
• Industrial revitalization since 1985.
• Centrality advantages attracting innovative companies and headquarters of major domestic firms and multinational subsidiaries to Madrid and Barcelona.

This further increases outsourcing, reflected in industrial and business parks.

Areas and Industrial Hubs in Expansion

These are the result of industry trends or endogenous industrialization development. Types include:

1. Metropolitan Crowns

   These areas are undergoing industrial reconversion

Spain and the European Union

The EU is a community of 27 European states established on November 1, 1993, when the Treaty on European Union came into force.

Spain's Accession to the EU: Reasons for Inclusion

Spain signed the Treaty of Accession to the then European Community in 1985, and its entry became effective in 1986, following a previous application in 1962. The delay was due to political and economic reasons, as Spain's economic backwardness compared to other countries made its entry inadvisable.

With the death of Franco in 1975, the end of his regime, and the promulgation of the Constitution in 1978, Spain's inclusion in the construction of Europe could no longer be denied.

Furthermore, the incorporation of new member countries like Spain... Continue reading "Spain's Integration into the EU: Benefits and Challenges" »

Definitions

Chain Migration

A process that occurs when an immigrant family brings others to the host country once they achieve some economic stability.

Emigration

Population transfer from one site to another. The person who leaves their place of residence is a migrant.

Rural Exodus

Mass migratory movement of the population from rural to urban and industrial areas, which brings rural depopulation and aging.

Immigration

Arrival of the population from another territory.

Labor Market

Where labor supply and demand meet, often regulated by the state.

Return Migration

Returning to the place of origin or habitual residence after spending at least a year away.

Swallow Migration

Annual temporary moves to work in agricultural campaigns.

Irregular Migration

Migration... Continue reading "Immigration & Emigration: A Glossary of Terms" »

Miño River

The Miño, a 340km river in Spain, flows through Lugo, Orense, and Pontevedra in Galicia. Its final stretch forms the border between Spain and Portugal, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean between A Guarda (Spain) and Caminha (Portugal). Its main tributary is the Sil.

Douro River

Born in the southern slopes of the Picos de Urbión, in the Iberian System (Soria province), the Douro River stretches 895km, with 609km in Spain. Its basin is the largest on the Iberian Peninsula. It flows into the Atlantic Ocean near Oporto. Notable tributaries from the Cantabrian Mountains include the Esla, Duratón, Eresma, Adaja, Tormes, Órbigo, Arlanza, and Arlanzón.

Tagus River

The Tagus, the longest river on the Iberian Peninsula, originates in the Sierra... Continue reading "Major Rivers of Spain: An In-Depth Look at Their Courses and Characteristics" »

Hydrographic Confederations of Spain

Mino

The Mino originates in the Massif Galaico. Its main tributary is the Sil. It covers the provinces of Lugo, Orense, and Pontevedra, where it marks the border with Portugal. It was included in the North Basin, along with all the Cantabrian rivers.

Duero

The Duero Basin is the largest on the Iberian Peninsula. The Douro river originates in the Picos de Urbión (Iberian Mountains). It crosses the provinces of Soria, Burgos, Valladolid, and Zamora, and ends in Porto, Portugal. Its tributaries include the Esla and Pisuerga on the right bank, and the Adaja and Tormes on the left bank. It has a predominantly rainfall-fed regime, with peaks in winter and minimum flow in summer.

Tagus

The Tagus River is the longest... Continue reading "Hydrographic Confederations of Spain: An Overview" »