Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Political Organization Over Time in Christian Kingdoms

Over time, the Christian kingdoms developed their own political institutions:

• The Monarchy: It had feudal allegiance, which established relations with their subjects. The king surrounded himself with officials who helped in the tasks of government. In Castile and Portugal, the monarchy was stronger than in Aragon and Navarre.
• The Cortes: They had their origin in an advisory body formed by people close to the king. Subsequently, they were constituted by representatives of the three estates: nobility, clergy, and residents of the cities and towns. Their role was to make laws and approve new taxes. In Aragon and Navarre, they had more decision-making power than in Castile and Portugal, and acted

Northern and Central Asia

This region encompasses the Russian Federation and several former Soviet republics. Russia, the world's largest country, has faced economic and social challenges. As a major producer of oil and minerals, its economy possesses a substantial industrial base, yet faces issues such as capital shortage, unemployment, and corruption. Many Northern and Central European countries primarily operate in primary and tertiary sectors, with diverse ethnic groups like Tajiks and Turkmen.

West Asia

Dominated by Islamic culture, West Asia includes Middle Eastern countries and the Jewish state of Israel, alongside various Christian communities. The region's diverse governance structures range from Islamic republics to parliamentary systems.... Continue reading "Geopolitical and Economic Landscapes of Asia" »

Climate Factors in Spain

Astronomical and Meteorological Factors

Geography

• Strategic Location Between Two Seas

Precipitation

• Dry, Humid, and Arid Regions Across Spain

Average Annual Temperature Distribution

• Latitude
• Marine Influence
• Altitude

Pressure and Winds

• Breezes
• Local Winds

Other Climatic Elements

• Insolation
• Cloudiness
• Humidity
• Aridity

Rivers of Spain

The Spanish river network exhibits several key characteristics:

• Dissymmetry in the river network, influenced by relief.
• Parallelism with mountain systems.
• Alternation between rivers and mountain systems.
• Intense connection with the occupation of the territory.

River Flow and Regimes

• Absolute and Relative Flow
• River Regimes:
  • Snowy (Nival)
  • Pluvial (Rainfall)

Major River Regimes

• Oceanic Rainfall Patterns
• Mediterranean Rainfall

The Area of Urban Influence

Cities are central places supplying goods and services to a more or less extensive area, known as their area of influence. A system of settlements was proposed by Christaller in 1933. He classified central places according to the variety and quality of the functions they play and assigned them a hexagonal area of influence. The result is an organized territory resembling a hexagonal mesh formed by the areas of influence of each of the central places. The area of influence of cities is not homogeneous and is constantly changing.

• Madrid: Principal place of influence throughout Spain.
• Periphery: Nuclei of influence.

Following at an intermediary distance are the mid-range cities, and then nuclei of minor influence.

Hierarchy

Topic 2: The 18th Century Revolutions

Agricultural Revolution

The Agricultural Revolution saw remarkable increases in food production due to key innovations:

• Changes in farming systems
• Introduction of new machinery
• New property structures

The spread of crop rotation (e.g., the Norfolk system), combining cereal and fodder cultivation, eliminated the need for fallow periods.

Increased Production & Demographic Growth

Increased food production led to lower food prices in the 18th century, contributing to significant demographic growth. Birth rates rose, mortality rates decreased, and life expectancy increased.

Industrial Revolution

The concentration of workers in factories led to the decline of many handmade crafts, with factory production replacing... Continue reading "18th Century Agricultural & Industrial Revolutions" »

Earth's Climates

Climates are categorized into three main types:

Cold Climates

• Polar Climate: Cold all year; low temperature and precipitation.
• Mountain Climate: Cold winters and cool summers; precipitation increases with altitude.

Warm Climates

• Tropical Climate: Mild winters and warm summers; precipitation is scarce.
• Tropical Wet: High temperature and abundant precipitation.

Temperate Climates

• Mediterranean Climate: Dry summers and mild winters; characterized by estival drought.
• Oceanic Climate: Mild winters and cool summers; constant precipitation.
• Continental Climate: Cold winters and warm summers; maximum precipitation in summer.

Global Environments

Warm Environments (4 types)

• Forest: High temperature and abundant precipitation all year, located throughout

The Evolution of Spanish Cities

Pre-Industrial, Industrial, and Post-Industrial Stages

The evolution of Spanish cities can be divided into three stages: pre-industrial, industrial, and post-industrial.

The Pre-Industrial City

The pre-industrial city includes the development of cities from antiquity until the installation of the industrialization process.

Ancient Times

The first cities of the Iberian Peninsula arose in the era of Phoenician, Punic, and Greek settlements (7th century BC). These people founded merchant factories. The Roman age saw increased urbanization in the peninsula. Their legacy materialized in the emergence of new Roman colonies, some built on pre-existing populations, such as Tarraco (Tarragona), Carthago Nova (Cartagena), and... Continue reading "Evolution of Spanish Cities: Pre-Industrial to Post-Industrial" »

1. Population of the EU: Slow Growth and Aging

Almost 500 million people live in the countries that make up the EU. The population grows very little. The low birth rate, an average fertility rate of 1.5 children per woman, means that natural population growth is slow. The population over 65 years represents 16% of the total and has increased for two reasons: the adult population is very large, and life expectancy is high. The percentage of the population under 15 years is decreasing. The European population is aging.

High Percentage of Immigrants

The EU increasingly welcomes immigrants. In 2004, the population increased. Germany, France, and the United Kingdom were the 21 main host countries for immigrants. Later, Italy and Spain became priority... Continue reading "EU and Spain Population: Demographics, Migration, and Culture" »

Population of the European Union

Slow Growth and Aging

• The population is experiencing slow growth due to a low birth rate, with death rates exceeding birth rates by over 10%.
• Natural population growth is slow, with an average fertility rate of 1.5 children per woman.

High Percentage of Immigrants

• Germany, France, and traditionally the United Kingdom have been major recipients of immigrants.
• At the beginning of the 21st century, Spain and Italy became priority destination countries.
• Each community has inclusion programs with two goals: language teaching and integration into the core values of the host country.

Uneven Population Density

• The average population density is 114 inhabitants/km².
• Over 1,200 municipalities have a population density of less than

Europe at the Dawn of the 18th Century: The Ancien Régime

At the beginning of the 18th century, Europe lived under the 'Ancien Régime' (Old Regime). This was a system based on:

• A seigneurial agricultural economy.
• Absolute monarchy.
• An estates-based society.

Seigneurial Agriculture: The Economic Foundation

From an economic point of view, agriculture was the most important activity. Key characteristics included:

• Subsistence Farming: Primarily aimed at self-sufficiency, often using a triennial rotation system with fallow land. Autoconsumption was the norm, with few surpluses.
• Subsistence Crises: The economy was vulnerable to crises. Poor harvests led to food shortages, price increases, hunger, and misery, which often generated popular riots.
• Land Ownership: