Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

History

History is the science of humanity's past events in a particular space and time, analyzing its causes to better understand our present.

Sources of Information

Historians study the past because they cannot directly observe it. They seek clues, a collection of traces called primary sources, such as letters. Secondary materials are what other historians have written.

Ages of History

Ancient Age

The Ancient Age begins with the appearance of writing and ends with the fall of the Roman Empire at the hands of the Barbarians in the 5th century AD (476 AD).

Middle Ages

The Middle Ages is the historical period of Western civilization between the 5th and 15th centuries. It conventionally begins in 476 AD with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ends... Continue reading "Human History: From Prehistory to Contemporary Times" »

Challenges in Spanish Fisheries

Fleet Issues and Overexploitation

• Excessive fleet size: The fleet grew significantly until 1977 due to increased demand and facilities provided for renewal (e.g., subsidies). However, higher oil prices, the 1975 crisis, and the 200-mile exclusive economic zone led to an excessive fleet.
• Outdated technology: A large number of small tonnage vessels with outdated technology cannot operate far from the coast, leading to over-exploitation of national fisheries.

Key Environmental Concerns

• Overexploitation of resources.
• Water pollution from agricultural, urban, industrial, and oil discharges.

Regulation and Restructuring of the Spanish Fisheries Sector

• Integration into the EU internal market: Spain's integration led to Common

Spain's Industrial Crisis and Restructuring (1970s-1980s)

The mid-1970s marked the onset of an international crisis in Spain, triggered by rising oil prices and the economic transformations accompanying the third phase of the Industrial Revolution. The national unemployment rate surged from 1.1% in 1970 to 22% in 1985. Within the industrial sector, unemployment reached 16%, with a staggering 780,000 jobs lost between 1976 and 1985. Several factors necessitated industrial restructuring: business deficiencies, including a prevalence of small businesses, outdated facilities, and low productivity; excessive financial dependency; and the rising cost of capital. These challenges were compounded by the over-specialization of industrial sectors. First-... Continue reading "Industrial Evolution: Spain's Economic Crisis and Location Factors" »

Bali: Paradise or Paradox?

The Enduring Myth of a Tropical Paradise

For over 60 years, the tropical Indonesian island of Bali has been portrayed to the outside world as a heavenly paradise, where a strong culture and sense of community protect its inhabitants from the rigours of the modern world. This image is supported by many millions of dollars from the international community, which provides luxury hotel accommodation and facilities for nearly a million foreign visitors traveling annually to the holiday island.

Bali's image as an earthly paradise was first created by writers and artists who visited the island in the 1930s, according to University of New South Wales Lecturer Adrian Vickers in his widely acclaimed book, Bali, A Paradise Created.... Continue reading "Bali's Dual Reality: Paradise Myth vs. Modern Challenges" »

The Impact of Developmentalism on Urban Growth

From the second half of the 1950s, an era of strong economic growth and rapid industrialization, known as developmentalism, began. This change had a profound impact on cities.

During this period, initial policies promoted massive state housing subsidies, which fostered the growth of numerous neighborhoods in most cities.

Councils initiated modern municipal urban planning through the General Urban Plan. Land was classified into distinct zones:

• Urban land
• Developable land
• Rustic or undeveloped land

It was a time marked by a significant lack of urban services. While a large number of houses were constructed, the parallel development of essential services lagged behind.

Traffic congestion and circulation issues... Continue reading "Urban Evolution: Developmentalism's Impact and Post-Industrial City Shifts" »

Transport is of great importance in Spain, particularly in its more developed cities. It is a system that facilitates the movement of people and goods through interconnected infrastructure networks, including roads, ports, airports, and railways.

Characteristics of the Spanish Transport System

The Spanish transport system exhibits several distinct characteristics:

• Influence of the Natural Environment: The challenging relief necessitates the construction of expensive bridges and tunnels, increasing infrastructure costs.
• Radial Network Centered in Madrid: The network, particularly roads and railways, is predominantly radial with Madrid as the central hub. This radial structure also significantly impacts air transport, as Madrid hosts numerous domestic

Ecological Reserves

An ecological reserve is a natural area, either virgin or semi-virgin, where numerous animal and plant species coexist alongside abiotic factors such as water, soil, and sunlight. The role of an ecological reserve is to protect a natural area in its current state to maintain its unmodified condition. Many ecological reserves exist worldwide, including Shark Island in Sonora, Calakmul in Quintana Roo, and the Centla Swamps biosphere reserve in Tabasco, among others.

National Parks and Nature Reserves

National parks and nature reserves are areas selected by governments or private organizations for special protection against deterioration and environmental degradation. Selection criteria vary, encompassing natural beauty, scientific... Continue reading "Ecological Reserves and National Parks" »

Population Trends in Developed Countries

Population in Developed Countries: Weak Growth

The pace of population growth is very weak, around 0.2%. This weak growth is due to very low birth rates; the average fertility rate is 1.5 children per woman.

Main factors causing this low birth rate:

• The progressive incorporation of women into the labor market and the difficulty of balancing work and childcare.
• The delay in the age of starting a family and having the first child.
• The significant levels of expenditure on child maintenance.
• The change in social norms.

High Life Expectancy and Aging

The average life expectancy exceeds 79 years. Because of this and the low birth rate, developed countries are aging. The most affected countries are Japan and European... Continue reading "Population Trends: Developed vs. Developing Nations" »

The Tracks or Consequences of Imperialism

Colonialism brought significant economic and cultural changes, profoundly impacting the lifestyles of indigenous peoples.

Economic Exploitation

Europeans practiced a plunder economy, exploiting resources at the lowest possible cost. European settlers appropriated land, displacing indigenous populations, some of whom were systematically exterminated. Large companies received concessions to exploit the land through the plantation system, often with forced labor and mistreatment of the native people. Forced labor and the destruction of traditional activities increased the misery of the indigenous population. Railways, highways, ports, and telegraph cables were designed to facilitate exploitation by the metropolis.... Continue reading "Imperialism's Impact and Expansion: 19th and 20th Centuries" »

The Dawn of the Modern Age

Historians generally mark the end of the Middle Ages in the late fifteenth century. The conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 and the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 are widely considered the two major events that signify the beginning of the Modern Age. This new phase was characterized by European expansion across the continent and beyond, as nations sought wealth and new lands to establish themselves. Europe was no longer an isolated continent with limited external contacts; instead, it established extensive trade routes and colonies in almost every part of the world.

Within Europe itself, profound changes occurred. Political systems underwent significant transformations, economic... Continue reading "The Dawn of the Modern Age: Europe's Great Transformation" »