Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The English Revolution (17th Century)

In England, power was traditionally divided between the monarch and the two chambers of Parliament (the House of Commons and the House of Lords). These chambers often restrained the King's actions, particularly regarding taxation and policy.

In the 17th century, the Stuart monarchs sought to limit the power of Parliament and bring to justice those who opposed them. This conflict led to the Civil War between supporters of Parliament and the Monarchy.

In 1649, King Charles I was executed, resulting in a republic. The system of government, whose president was Oliver Cromwell, eventually took a dictatorial form.

The monarchy returned in 1660 under Charles II. This government, with the help of Parliament, voted... Continue reading "Political Transformation: English and American Revolutions" »

Almost half the world's population, some 2.6 billion people, survive on less than $2 per day. The 500 largest fortunes in the world exceed the value of all income received by the 416 million poorest people on the planet. The 20% richer population accumulates about three-quarters of world income.

Developed Nations: Economic Characteristics

• High technological level
• Export of highly valued products
• Increased uptake of financial resources
• Significant investment in research, science, and technology
• Development of new technologies

Developing Nations: Economic Challenges

• Reduced technological level
• Exports of less valued goods
• Minor fundraising
• Low investment in research, science, and technology
• Inability to generate new technologies

Global Wealth Concentration

Highest Density of Population: Africa / America / Asia / Europe / Oceania

• Physical Factors: Flat relief, climate, suitability for agriculture, drinking water.
• Historical and Political Factors: The process of land occupation, land ownership, population policies (birth control, incentives or restrictions, etc.).
• Economic Factors: Natural resources, industrial facilities, communication facilities, proximity to the sea.

Population Density: Number of inhabitants per area, inhabitants / km ².

Levels of Population Concentration:

• Demographic Vacuum: (less than 1 sq/km ²): Land that is cold, arid, hot, and humid (Deserts: white, yellow, green).
• Intermediate Zones: (between 1 and 50 inhabitants / km ²): Regularly occupied areas that encourage high concentrations

Timeline of the European Union

• 1950: The Schuman Declaration proposed the establishment of a European Coal and Steel Community.
• 1957: Six countries decided to build a European Economic Community.
• 1968: Common policies were put in place.
• 1973: Membership expanded from six to nine.
• 1975: The European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) was established.
• 1979: A decisive step forward was taken (likely referring to the first direct elections to the European Parliament).
• 1981: Greece joined the Community.
• 1985: Hope sprang again for further integration.
• 1986: Spain and Portugal joined. The Single European Act was signed.
• 1987: The Single European Act came into force.
• 1990: German unification.
• 1991: The Soviet Union ceased to exist. The Maastricht Treaty was signed.

The Agrarian Problem in Spain During the Second Republic

Introduction

The Second Spanish Republic, born from the municipal elections of April 12, 1931, marked a new era of hope after the exile of King Alfonso XIII. The Republic aimed to address the urgent needs of the Spanish people, including a critical agrarian problem with deep historical roots.

The State of Spanish Agriculture

Despite advancements in literature and science, Spain suffered from high illiteracy rates, exceeding 50% according to some estimates. Vast areas remained isolated, contributing to what philosopher José Ortega y Gasset termed an "invertebrate" Spain. Income inequality further exacerbated the situation.

The core issue was the unequal distribution and exploitation of... Continue reading "Land Reform and the Second Spanish Republic" »

Factors Explaining the Decline in Mortality

Sanitary Measures and Socioeconomic Resources

Medical advances and improvements in socioeconomic resources, especially food availability, have contributed significantly to the decline in mortality rates.

A combination of social, demographic, economic, and cultural factors has positively impacted the overall health of the population.

Spatial Distribution of Mortality in Spain

By Autonomous Community

Currently, regions with higher mortality rates include Asturias, Aragón, Baleares, and Galicia. Conversely, the Canary Islands, Madrid, Murcia, Andalusia, and Catalonia have the lowest rates. However, when considering average life expectancy, northern regions show more positive indices than southern regions.... Continue reading "Mortality Decline and Natural Growth in Spain: A Demographic Analysis" »

Agriculture, Farming, and Rural Land: Key Terms

Farming: Set of tasks performed by humans to obtain products of the land (agriculture, livestock, and forestry).

Intensive Agriculture: Agricultural practice characterized by a large investment in technology or labor that produces high productivity.

Agrociudad: Core of the population, given their size, can be considered a city, but it plays mostly rural functions.

Waters: Sector of ocean space adjacent to the land of a country on which that State exercises sovereign powers.

Sharecropping: Tenancy in which the owner grants the use of land in exchange for a percentage of the crop.

Lease: Tenancy in which the owner grants the use of the land on payment of rent.

Fallow: Traditional agricultural practice... Continue reading "Agriculture, Farming and Rural Land: Key Definitions" »

Context and Document Analysis

This document, titled "The Agrarian Problem," is an economic and political text explaining why the Republican government proposed land reform. It is contained within "Causes of the War of Spain" and was aimed at Spanish society of the time. Its author was Manuel Azaña, Prime Minister of the Republic during the reformist biennium and later president, leading the Popular Front. The central idea of the text is the stark social and economic backwardness of Spain and the proposed solution through the ambitious Republican government's action, particularly the famous land reform.

The Agrarian Problem: An Overview

This large contrast was also seen in the agricultural sector. There were areas of Spain where a single family... Continue reading "Spain's Agrarian Reform: Azaña's Vision for the Republic" »

City Structure

Most towns and cities serve as places of residence and have industries. These are located in different parts of the city; this determines the structure.

Residential Areas

Residential areas occupy the most space. Wealthier inhabitants live in the most elegant parts of the city. Poorer people live in less attractive districts in old buildings.

Service Areas

Cities provide a wide range of services. Many of these services are found in the city center. Politics is the main function of all capital cities. The largest port's main function is trade. Destinations of pilgrims have a primary religious function.

Industrial Areas

Industries were started in the cities. Very little industrial activity takes place inside the city. Most industries are... Continue reading "Urban Structures, Growth, and Networks" »

Climate Patterns in Spain

In winter, polar air masses move south, and Atlantic storms significantly impact the Atlantic coast of the peninsula but rarely reach the interior. On the map, a cold front associated with a low-pressure system approaches the Atlantic Peninsula while an anticyclone dominates.

In the Mediterranean, storms also originate when hot air masses come into contact with cold air, which usually happens in spring and especially in fall. Fall storms often cause torrential rains of short duration but high intensity.

Biodiversity in Spain

Spain is a place that has a high biodiversity worldwide, ranking second after tropical forests. This feature is due to different causes:

• a) Spain encompasses three major plant domains: The Atlantic