Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Population Distribution

Population distribution across the Earth's surface is uneven, influenced by various physical and human factors.

Physical Factors

• Weather: Population density tends to be higher in temperate zones.
• Vegetation: Humans generally avoid areas with dense vegetation like forests and rainforests.
• Bodies of Water: Populations concentrate near water sources due to biological needs and economic activities (agriculture, industry).
• Relief: Flat terrains like plains, valleys, and deltas attract higher population densities.
• Soil: Historically, soil fertility has been a crucial factor in population distribution.

Human Factors

• Historical Factors: Historical events and migrations have shaped population densities in areas like the Far East and

Forms of Colonial Rule and Administration

Various forms of colonial rule were established:

• Concessions and Spheres of Influence

  Commercial advantages were obtained, where independent countries were divided into areas of influence. This was the case of the assignment of ports for trade in China.

• Protectorates

  The local government kept the internal administration of the country, but the colonial power controlled foreign policy, the army, and the exploitation of certain resources to protect the country from other foreign powers. This was the case, for example, of the British protectorate of Egypt.

• Colonies

  These were territories under the direct sovereignty of the colonial power. They could be:

  • Colonies of Position

    Considered strategic territories controlled

Charles I of Spain and the War of Spanish Succession

Charles of Austria, under the name of Charles I (1516^[1]-1556), first joined in his person the crowns of Castile and Aragon, and was Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire as Charles V (1519-1558).

The War of Spanish Succession was an international conflict over the succession to the throne of Spain following the death of Charles II. It lasted from 1701 until 1713, although resistance in Catalonia continued until 1714 and in Mallorca until 1715. This war resulted in the establishment of the House of Bourbon in Spain. For this country, it was also a civil war between Bourbon and Austrian supporters belonging to the old Hispanic kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, whose last embers were not extinguished... Continue reading "Spanish History: Charles I, War of Succession, Al-Andalus" »

Europe's Industrial Strength and Economic Evolution

While not a single nation, Europe collectively stands as a leading industrial power globally, often surpassing the United States and Japan in certain sectors. The industry and construction sectors together contribute over 25% of the European Gross National Product (GNP). This high productivity within the industrial sector is largely attributed to continuous technological development.

Current Industrial Trends in Europe

Europe remains an industrial giant in key sectors such as steel and chemicals. However, industries with lower technological content, like textiles, footwear, toys, furniture, and household appliances, have gradually diminished in importance. Production in these traditional sectors... Continue reading "European Economic Power: Industry, Services, and Union Milestones" »

Farming Practices: Diverse Cropping Systems

Irrigated Agriculture

This method involves supplying large quantities of water to crops through artificial means like canals, ditches, sprinklers, and pools. It requires significant economic investment and careful water infrastructure management. Key crops include fruits, rice, cotton, vegetables, and sugar beets.

Dryland Farming

Dryland farming relies solely on natural rainfall for water supply. Crops grown using this method include pulses, sunflower, soybean, peanut, barley, rye, grapes, olives, and wheat—the Mediterranean trilogy.

Intensive Agriculture

This system maximizes yields through substantial capital investments (materials and technology) and/or labor. High productivity is achieved through... Continue reading "Farming Practices: A Deep Dive into Diverse Cropping Systems" »

AD 711: The Moors Invade Spain

In AD 711, the Moors invaded Spain from North Africa and conquered most of it.

AD 720: The Moors Cross the Pyrenees Mountains

In AD 720, the Moors crossed the Pyrenees Mountains and pushed into France.

AD 732: Defeat at the Battle of Poitiers

In AD 732, at the Battle of Poitiers, they were defeated and driven out of France.

13th Century: The Alhambra Palace

In the 13th century, the Moors built the Alhambra palace in Granada.

AD 1000: The Moors Begin to Lose Control

In AD 1000, the Moors began to lose control of Spain.

AD 1250: Moors Control Only Granada

In AD 1250, the Moors only controlled the area around Granada.

AD 1492: The Christian Rulers Drive Them Out

In AD 1492, the Christian rulers Ferdinand and Isabella drove them... Continue reading "The Moors in Spain: History, Culture, and Legacy" »

Key Agricultural and Geographical Concepts Explained

This document provides clear definitions for essential terms across agriculture, livestock management, and physical geography. Understanding these concepts is crucial for grasping land use, environmental systems, and global positioning.

Dehesa: Sustainable Agro-Pastoral System

An agricultural system characterized by large farm and livestock holdings, typically utilizing poor quality soils. It's a unique agroforestry system found in parts of Spain and Portugal, balancing grazing with tree cover.

Irrigation: Supplemental Water for Crops

A cultivation technique involving the artificial application of water to land or soil to assist in the growth of agricultural crops, landscapes, and the revegetation... Continue reading "Defining Core Agricultural and Earth Science Terms" »

Crown of Aragon's Expansion in the Mediterranean

The expansion of the Crown of Aragon in the Mediterranean was based on successful long-distance trade with Italy, North Africa, and the East. From the 13th century, the city of Barcelona was the main driver behind this trade. The areas of greatest commercial interest for the Crown of Aragon were southern Italy, North Africa, and the ports of Syria and Egypt. Despite the commercial interests of the Mediterranean route, the military expeditions undertaken by the Aragonese monarchs were often motivated by dynastic issues.

The main steps of the Aragonese expansion were:

• The conquest of Valencia and the Balearic Islands by James I.
• The conquest of Sicily by Peter III (1282), which brought about war with

The road network uses only a tenth of its roads.

Transport and Communications System in Spain

The system of transport and telecommunications are two basic elements to boost the economy and promote regional balance. In recent decades, public investment in transport infrastructure has become a priority for the state, alongside the emergence of new telecommunications companies.

Infrastructure and Transport Features

Main features of our transportation system include:

• Adaptation to Physical and Socioeconomic Conditions

  There is a close relationship between physical characteristics, social and economic planning, and the provision of transport infrastructure. The network of roads and railways has had to adapt to the high average altitude of the Iberian

City Concept

Quantitative Criteria: Considers all core city populations exceeding a certain number of inhabitants.

Qualitative Criteria: Considers cities and villages that meet certain characteristics: high population density and high-rise dwellings, the predominance of economic activities and industries. The consideration of these criteria defines a core city as a large population center with high population density, a predominance of industrial activity, and an urban lifestyle.

Development Process

1. Pre-Industrial Cities (Until the Industrial Revolution)

Cities were small, served as centers of political and religious power, and fostered craft businesses.

• The first cities emerged in Mesopotamia on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, almost