Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Toward the Contemporary World

At the end of the 18th century, certain movements in the economy overrode attempts at protectionism, which was based in most countries of old Europe. Industry was widely dispersed, operating in workshops, and the small textile industry was concentrated. After 1760, this process became known as the Industrial Revolution. This reform began in England, where the bourgeoisie controlled power, helping to transform agriculture. The Industrial Revolution marked the transition from a traditional agrarian economy to one marked by industry and machine production.

Demographic Revolution: Population Increases

Causes:

• Drop in mortality.
• Eradication of diseases (Black Death).
• Progress of personal and urban hygiene.
• Collection of garbage

Spain's Diverse Agricultural Landscapes

Agricultural landscapes represent the morphology of rural areas, a combination of the natural environment and agricultural activity. The diversity of these combinations explains the variety of existing agricultural landscapes.

The Agricultural Landscape of Wet Spain

This region comprises the north and northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, characterized by rugged terrain with few flat areas and wet oceanic climates throughout the year.

Agrarian Structure

Historically, a large population couldn't be supported by the land, leading to migration and an aging population today. Settlements are dispersed in villages and parishes.

Farmers own small plots (minifundismo) surrounded by hedges, decreasing profitability and... Continue reading "Spain's Agricultural Landscapes: A Regional Analysis" »

Roman Conquest of Hispania

The Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, known as Hispania, unfolded in three significant phases:

• 218 BC – 197 BC: During the Second Punic War, Rome gained control over all coastal territories of the Iberian Peninsula, stretching from the Pyrenees to the south of modern-day Portugal.
• From 150 BC: Rome extended its dominion inland, subjugating the Celtiberian peoples in the peninsula's interior.
• 29 BC – 19 BC: The final phase saw the subjugation of the Asturian and Cantabrian tribes, completing Rome's conquest of the peninsula.

Roman Provincial Administration

During the Roman era, the territory of Hispania was divided into different provinces to ensure better control and management. Each province, in turn, was subdivided... Continue reading "Roman Hispania: Conquest, Society, and Legacy" »

Global Events and the Shift in Social Structures

The external background of this era involves various events worldwide, starting from the eighteenth century, which served to alter the existing structure. This movement culminates with the American colonies and a significant change in social policy structures.

External Factors: Independence of the 13 Colonies

During the seventeenth century in England, a migration process was triggered by English traders rejecting commercial monopolies. Those who were persecuted for their religion sought an alternative, finding the conditions to settle in America to:

• Experience wild adventures and civilize the territories.
• Achieve economic development.

By the eighteenth century, these colonies became hotbeds of development.... Continue reading "American Independence and 18th Century Social Structures" »

During the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, while a unified state as a legal entity didn't exist, the monarchs ruled over a collection of territories with shared interests. They were aware of this commonality and, while retaining the traditional titles of their respective kingdoms, sought to create new institutions and homogenize existing ones. Key examples include the Inquisition, the establishment of permanent Ambassadors, and the strengthening of the Army.

Government Institutions

Several key government institutions emerged or were consolidated during this period:

Viceroyalties

Viceroyalties were established as representatives of the monarchs in realms where they were frequently absent. Viceroys held significant political, judicial, and military... Continue reading "The Catholic Monarchs: Unifying Spain Through Institutions" »

Industrial Development: The Process of Change

The cotton industry, iron, and mining were among the first sectors to adopt new technologies. Before analyzing this process, it is essential to revisit the issue of technological change during the Industrial Revolution.

Historians who have studied this period agree that mid-18th century England possessed a "breeding ground" conducive to innovation: freedom and incentives for innovation, skilled craftsmen, and entrepreneurs. However, it must be added that technological change owed much to a whole chain of inventions and the transfer of innovations from one industrial sector to another.

The Cotton Industry: Early Innovations

The first revolutionary changes in technology and economic organization that... Continue reading "Industrial Revolution: Cotton, Iron, and Technological Advancements" »

The Urban Ensanche: Expansion and Development

Between the mid-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, industry attracted the rural population to industrial cities, causing their expansion beyond the city walls. Intermediate and small towns grew less and generally remained within their original boundaries. The areas that expanded created distinct zones:

• Widenings (Ensanches) for the bourgeois and industrial areas.
• Working-class neighborhoods and suburbs.

The Bourgeois Widening (Ensanche)

To create these areas, city walls were demolished, and the sites were used to build walks or boulevards to differentiate these new areas (often called the "new town") from the old city center (the helmet). This widening reflected bourgeois ideals: order, hygiene,

Natural Gas: Problems and Market Dynamics

Natural gas problems: They are not renewable. Asian economies are beginning to increase demand for the product, which will raise prices. Major producers: Russia, USA, Iran, China, Saudi Arabia. Refiners: Western USA. Consumers: USA, Japan, Germany, and Asian economies.

Problems with Natural Gas

Producers are trying to regulate and control the market, similar to the oil market. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), comprised of 11 states, controls 78% of petroleum. Oil prices are still high but not excessive, to prevent economic crises (drop in consumption).

Consumers are diversifying their purchasing locations and seeking energy alternatives, although these are often more expensive.... Continue reading "Natural Gas and Water Resources: Challenges and Solutions" »

The Rise of Cities and the Bourgeoisie

The emergence of the bourgeoisie and the growth of cities profoundly transformed feudal society. Noble kings and ecclesiastical authorities granted personal freedom to city inhabitants, along with rights such as holding markets. This allowed for the formation of a new, non-privileged social group.

Defining the Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie comprised artisanal people dedicated to work and trade, who depended on no feudal lord.

City Governance and Civic Elite

Cities formed assemblies of all their neighbors to organize their governments. They elected judges who protected finances, maintained order, and administered justice, all directed by a mayor. Ultimately, city government often fell into the hands of the richest... Continue reading "Medieval Urban Transformation: Bourgeoisie, Crises, and Revival" »

Economic and Demographic Shifts in Habsburg Spain

The 16th Century: Growth and Prosperity

The 16th century was marked by significant demographic and economic expansion, largely fueled by wealth from the Americas.

• Demographics: The population grew due to increased birth rates and greater financial stability.
• Economy: Major development facilitated the distribution of products throughout Europe and the Americas.
• Industry: Primarily craft-based, characterized by strong textile exports (wool), meeting high demand.
• Agriculture: New lands were cultivated, leading to job creation.
• Urban Centers: Towns grew stronger, experiencing less hunger and fewer outbreaks of disease.

The 17th Century: Crisis and Retreat

The 17th century brought a period of economic contraction... Continue reading "Habsburg Spain: 16th Century Boom and 17th Century Decline" »