Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Germanic Invasions

The Western Roman Empire followed a different evolution to the Byzantine Empire, as the lands of Western Europe were occupied by peoples of Germanic origin.

1. Germanic Tribes

The Germanic people came from Central Asia and settled for centuries near the borders of the Roman Empire. They were nomadic people who did not build cities, as they mainly lived in villages and camps. They mainly worked in farming and were organised into tribes, led by a tribal chief who was elected by an assembly of free men. The leader was the military chief and ruled with the help of warriors, with whom he established pacts of loyalty.

An increase in population and the need to seek pastures for cattle caused the Germanic people to move to western Europe.... Continue reading "The Germanic Invasions and the Fall of Rome" »

Causes of the Great Depression

• Over-expansion of Credit
• High Capital Surplus
• Industrial Over-expansion
• Technological Unemployment
• Agricultural Over-expansion
• Imbalance in International Trade

A New American Paradox: Breadlines and Soup Kitchens

Although soup kitchens were not unknown to the American lower classes before 1929, they grew as the economic depression intensified and peaked by 1932.

When soup kitchens first appeared, they were run by churches or private charities. The Capuchin Services Center in southeast Detroit, for example, served 1,500 to 3,000 people a day. That center opened on November 2, 1929.

Private volunteers were also important in setting up soup kitchens all over the US. By the mid-1930s, state and federal governments also were... Continue reading "Great Depression: Causes, Soup Kitchens, and Hoovervilles" »

Agricultural Revolution

The Agricultural Revolution was a series of profound changes in the primary sector during the 18th century. It encompassed technical advancements and alterations in rural land management (plots and buildings). The driving force was population growth, spurred by improved hygiene, better medicine, a decline in major epidemics, and fewer wars. After the abandonment of mercantilism, an increase in productivity became essential.

First Industrial Revolution

The First Industrial Revolution was characterized by a series of transformations resulting from the introduction of machines into workshops. This led to the emergence of new social classes and political institutions. It began in the 1760s in England and concluded around 1830.... Continue reading "Industrial Revolutions: Key Developments & Impacts" »

Class-Based Society Structure During Industrialization

During the Industrial Revolution, society was distinctly divided into three main groups:

The Upper Class

Comprising the wealthiest individuals, this class included:

• Wealthy Bourgeoisie: Obtained large profits from industrial ventures, becoming the dominant social group.
• Nobility: Received high incomes from their extensive agricultural holdings.

The Middle Class

This group represented a medium level of wealth and included:

• Civil servants, lawyers, and doctors.
• Small-scale merchants and craftspeople.
• Farmers with small agricultural holdings.

The Working Class

Living in extreme poverty, this class consisted of:

• Industrial workers who toiled in factories.
• Tenant farmers and agricultural labourers.

Life in

The Second Industrial Revolution and Imperialism

The Second Industrial Revolution (1870-1914)

The Second Industrial Revolution, taking place between 1870 and 1914, was characterized by rapid industrialization. This was primarily due to the increased importance of the financial sector in industry and the rise of finance capitalism.

Innovations and Changes

Production increased because of the following factors:

• New sources of finance: To establish businesses, owners had to find new sources of finance, such as joint-stock companies, the stock exchange, and banks.
• New technological advances: Improvements to the Bessemer converter, dynamite, stainless steel, and artificial fibers.
• New business structures: Cartels, holding companies, and trusts.
• New sources

Importance of World Trade

International trade is important because of the unequal distribution of natural resources, the differences between the economies of different states, and the interests of large companies in capturing part of the world market.

Key Global Trading Regions

• USA: The world's main importer and the second largest exporter. Its production is higher than any other country.
• EU: The world's largest trading bloc. Member states are small but wealthy, and they import and export a great many products.
• Australia: Does a lot of trade in the Pacific and with East Asian countries.
• Africa: Contributes little to international trade because of its level of poverty.
• Middle Eastern Countries (Saudi Arabia): Primarily export oil.
• Southeast Asia: Do

The Road to Brazilian Independence (1815–1822)

Brazil was inhabited by the royal court led by King Dom João VI. In 1815, he named his son, Dom Pedro, the Regent Prince, giving him authority to govern Brazil when the King left or died.

The Constitutional Crisis and the Return to Portugal

In 1820, Portugal experienced the Constitutional Revolution, initiated by liberal constitutionalists. This movement led to the constituent assembly's meeting (known as the Cortes), which decided to create the first constitution of the kingdom and to demand the return of King Dom João from Brazil.

On April 26, 1821, the King left Brazil in the hands of his son Dom Pedro and returned to Portugal.

Military Manipulation and Dom Pedro's Resolve

The military took the... Continue reading "Dom Pedro I and Brazil's Declaration of Independence (1822)" »

Modes of Acculturation: Opening New Horizons

The Origins of Orientalism

• The beginnings of an academic interest in Oriental languages and literature in Britain can be traced back to the early 17th century.
• There were both secular and religious reasons for this interest.
• Following the Protestant Reformation and the challenge to the doctrinal authority of the Latin Vulgate, a knowledge of Arabic had come to be seen as an important adjunct to the philological skills of Hebrew and Greek Bible translators.
• At the same time, there was renewed scientific and medical interest in Arabic, once it was recognized that the Latin translations of several important medieval scientific treatises were of questionable reliability.
• Chairs of Arabic were established at

The Rapid Rise of Plastic Pollution

Plastic pollution is damaging our environment rapidly. Waste plastic material is hard to dispose of and contributes to major pollution on Earth. This has become a cause of global concern in recent times. With the increasing use of plastic bags, utensils, and furniture, the amount of plastic waste has also gone up, and so has plastic pollution.

It is time we must take this problem seriously and work towards eradicating it, because it is causing significant damage to humans, animals, and plants. Our planet is suffering, and we need to stop this trend.

The Ubiquitous Threat to Ocean Ecosystems

Plastic pollution is already one of the most serious threats to ocean ecosystems. Scientists realize that plastic is ubiquitous—it... Continue reading "Global Crisis: Mitigating Plastic Pollution and Waste Management" »

What Was the Enlightenment? (La Ilustración)

• It was a period characterized by:
  • Confidence in reason to understand the world.
  • Faith in human progress, science, and education.
  • Criticism of the Old Regime, specifically:
    • Privileged estates.
    • Religious intolerance.
  • Emphasis on equality and liberty.
• Enlightenment ideas were spread through academies, books, newspapers, and salons, which were meetings organized in people’s homes.
• Some thinkers, such as D’Alembert and Diderot, created The Encyclopaedia, an extensive collection of writings which summarized knowledge from many areas of study.

Political Ideas of the Enlightenment

• Enlightenment thinkers wanted to abolish the estates system (sociedad estamental) and make all citizens equal before the law.
• Montesquieu