Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Rise of Suburbia: A Post-War Haven

In the aftermath of two devastating world wars and the looming threat of nuclear conflict, American families sought stability and refuge within the suburban home. Suburban developments lured buyers with promises of verdant open spaces and a sense of peace unattainable in urban environments. Historian Kenneth Jackson described the post-World War II single-family tract house as a"private haven in a heartless world" despite its aesthetic shortcomings.

The Construction of Levittown

However, not all Americans could access this suburban tranquility. A severe housing shortage, fueled by the baby boomer generation and plummeting construction, left many families struggling for shelter. The Levittowns in Long Island,... Continue reading "The Rise and Controversies of Suburbia: From Post-War Haven to Levittown's Exclusionary Practices" »

China: Economic Reforms

Ruled by Xiaoping, China has implemented a mix of Communism and Capitalism. The country has distributed land among farmers, allowed them to sell and export cheap products, and opened up to foreign trade and investments. Other Asian countries like South Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan have become competitive in electronics. India has seen advancements in industry, IT, automotive, and pharmaceutical sectors.

Conflicts in Asia

Internal and external conflicts in Asia stem from ethnic and religious tensions, particularly in Kashmir. The region has Hindu-majority populations facing Muslim leaders. Post-WW2, the liberation of British India led to conflicts over joining Pakistan or India. Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and... Continue reading "Global Economic and Political Developments in Asia and the Muslim World" »

A New Historical Period

Changes in the 15th and 16th Centuries

Fishing activity in Spain

• - Spain has traditionally been a major fishing nation, although the physical environment was not very favorable due to its small continental platform. Today, fishing remains important, though not as much as in the past.

Characteristics of the fishing industry

• - The fishing fleet has undergone a profound transformation. It includes small ships and a high-seas fleet composed of modern ships equipped with the latest technologies.
• - The majority of the species caught are fish (tuna and sardine). Other species of great market value are the mollusks, crustaceans (prawns and crabs), and cephalopods (octopus).
• - Fishing production is used for human consumption of fresh fish. However, some of the fish caught are used for industrial

The Middle Ages

The Middle Ages is a historical period that began with the Fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 A.D. (the 5th century) and ended with the Fall of the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire in 1453 (the 15th century). This period is divided into three stages: The Early Middle Ages, the High Middle Ages, and the Late Middle Ages.

Constitution of 1956

Introduction

Pakistan came into being in 1947 after many sacrifices. After the independence of Pakistan, it was governed by the Government of India Act 1935. The constitutional history of Pakistan is quite unfortunate. However, the first Constituent Assembly introduced the Constitution of 1956 after long debates. The Constitution of 1956 was enforced on 23 March 1956. But unfortunately, it was abrogated after two years.

Salient Features of the Constitution of 1956

Following are the salient features of the Constitution of 1956:

• Objective Resolution: The Objective Resolution was included as the Preamble of the Constitution of 1956.
• Name of Country: The Constitution of 1956 declared Pakistan as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
• National

Industry

Industry: The economic sector focused on large-scale production of physical goods for industrial processes or consumption.

Historical Development of Industry

Artisanal Labor (Up to the late 18th century)

Skilled craftspeople transformed raw materials into manufactured goods, limited by human capacity. Craftsmen's districts and guilds emerged in major cities.

First Industrial Revolution (Late 18th - Late 19th century)

Coal-fueled, steam-driven machines enabled large-scale manufacturing, particularly in textiles and metal goods, primarily in Great Britain.

Second Industrial Revolution (Late 19th - Late 20th century)

Mass production and assembly lines revolutionized manufacturing. New energy sources like oil and electricity boosted productivity.... Continue reading "Industrial Activities and Transformations" »

The tertiary sector and its activities

Evolution of the service economy

This sector plays an increasingly important role in the global economy. However, its relative weight depends on a country’s level of economic development. There are significant differences between developed and developing countries in terms of the quantity and quality of the services provided.

In developed countries, which rank high on the HDI, services tend to be located in large urban areas and tourist areas. They employ more than 60% of the working population. In major cities, like Madrid and Paris, the percentage employed by this sector is over 80%. The quality of the different services available gives the population a significant level of well-being.

In developing countries,... Continue reading "The Tertiary Sector: Evolution, Public vs Private, Financialization" »

The Western Roman Empire followed a different evolution to the Byzantine Empire.

byzantine

The lands of Western Europe were occupied by peoples of Germanic origin.

germanic

The Germanic people came from Central Asia and settled for centuries near the borders of the Roman Empire.

nomadic

Germanic people mainly lived in villages and camps.

farming

Germanic people were organised into tribes, led by a tribal chief.

assembly

warriors

An increase in population and the need to seek pastures for cattle caused the Germanic people to move to Western Europe.

western

Some of the Germanic tribes that pushed the boundaries of the Roman Empire during the 3rd century took advantage of its weakness to settle there.

weaknessThese tribes settled in the territory of the Western... Continue reading "The Fall of the Western Roman Empire: Germanic Invasions" »

Old Regime

• Agriculture: Continues with feudalism. Land is the basis. Problem: growing population.
• Craftsmanship: Controlled by guilds and follows steps to produce.
• Foreign Trade: Controlled by the state and monopolized (king has all power).
• Innovations: Domestic system.
• Social Structure: Three Estates system - privileged and non-privileged.
• Politics: From modern state to absolutism, increasing king's power.
• Culture: Religion justifies society and politics.

Enlightenment

Small changes in the Old Regime: keep monarchy but remove absolute power.

• Thinkers: Bourgeoisie and nobles.
• Context: In France and America in the 18th century.

Ideas

• Everything based on reason.
• Follow experiments.
• Progress and constant improvements.
• Follow happiness.

Thinkers

• Locke: Natural rights