Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Anarchism

Anarchism is an ideology based on the premise that all state authority is coercive and therefore illegal. It reached its intellectual peak in the late nineteenth century through the works of Proudhon and Kropotkin. Proudhon famously stated that "private property is theft," and since the main purpose of government is the protection of property, no form of government is justified.

Biomes

A biome is a large geographic area characterized by groups of plants and animals adapted to a particular environment. Climate is the primary factor determining the dominant vegetation type, although soil type and topography also play important roles. Each biome consists of different ecosystems whose communities have adapted to small differences in climate... Continue reading "Political and Environmental Concepts" »

Understanding Industry: Key Concepts and Factors

Labor Rights and Conditions

In developed countries, labor laws protect workers. These laws often include provisions for:

• Fair working hours and breaks
• The right to form and join trade unions
• The right to strike
• Paid holidays
• Protection against unemployment and illness

In contrast, underdeveloped countries often face challenges such as:

• Long working hours with minimal breaks
• Inadequate facilities
• Low wages
• Limited or no worker rights

Capital in Industry

Capital is essential for industrial activity and includes:

• Raw materials
• Energy sources
• Machinery and industrial plants
• Financial resources to purchase materials and pay workers

Company Mergers and Concentration

Company mergers aim to increase benefits. Two main types... Continue reading "Understanding Industry: Capital, Mergers, and Location Factors" »

Travel Schedule

The circuit is the basis for the production of guided tours, routes, and tour packages. A tourist circuit is composed of four elements:

• A specific space
• A natural or cultural heritage
• One subject, when the circuit is a specialized type
• Innovation capacity

Space or Territory

The tourist circuit can be considered local or regional depending on the territory covered. It is limited when covering a local city or town and regional when comprising more than one location. (City tour, guided tour of a neighborhood: local circuit; package in northern Argentina: regional circuit).

Factors to take into account to define the size of the circuit are several:

• The type of product it is designed for: The circuit is not a product itself but is the basis

European State Disparities

Inequalities exist among European states based on various factors:

• Size: The largest state by area is Russia.
• Situation: Almost all European states are maritime (have coastlines).
• Shape: Europe has states with fragmented territories or lack of territorial continuity.
• Population: The most populous state mentioned is Russia, with 143 million inhabitants.
• Wealth: Germany is considered the economic powerhouse of Europe, but Luxembourg is the country with the highest purchasing power per capita.

Key EU Treaties: Rome and Maastricht

What did the Rome and Maastricht treaties establish?

Treaty of Rome: This treaty established the European Economic Community (EEC). These treaties created a common market, an area where products could... Continue reading "European Union & Spain: Structures, Treaties, Disparities" »

Landscape Architecture: From Ancient Roots to Modern Design

Landscape architecture finds its roots in ancient Persia and Mesopotamia, but the term itself is rather modern. The landscape, viewed as an ecosystem, emphasizes the diversity of its flora and fauna. When linked to ethnology, landscape architecture is interested in its relationship with the lifestyles of different cultures that have inhabited a place. Society evolves along with the landscape, and the landscape is inherently associated with nature.

Types of Landscapes

• Urban Landscape: Characterized by human-made structures and infrastructure within a city or town.
• Natural or Rural Landscape: Dominated by natural features such as mountains, forests, and bodies of water.

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Industrial Activity

The set of processes and activities that aim to transform raw materials into finished products in bulk.

Company

An organization or institution engaged in economic and commercial activities.

Nuclear Fission

The currently used process that comes from the fission, or separation, of heavy atoms, such as uranium.

Renewable Energy Source

Sources that are inexhaustible because they generate energy without disappearing, allowing for indefinite use, such as water or heat from the sun.

Hydropower

The production of energy through the power of water. Reservoir water is channeled through a pipeline and used to move turbines connected to a generator, converting mechanical power into electricity.

Technology Industry or High-Tech Industry

These industries... Continue reading "Industrial Activity: Key Concepts and Definitions" »

Understanding Settlements

Settlement and Spatial Planning

Settlement refers to how human settlements and places of residence are located. If less than a quarter of the population is engaged in the primary sector, the settlement is classified as semi-urban. These elements determine the management of a territory and define its settlement system.

Types of Traditional Rural Settlements

The concentration of the rural population varies depending on the climate and the type of farming and ranching practices.

• Isolated Settlements

  Houses are isolated from each other, separated by cultivated land, and are far apart.

• Dispersed Settlements

  These are population centers with few houses situated around a central core.

• Concentrated Settlements

  Houses are grouped together,

Factors Changing Demographics

What factors were instrumental in changing demographics? What consequences did this have on the evolution of the population?

The increase in food production and progress in hygiene (soap) and medicine (vaccines) were instrumental. This led to a decline in mortality and a slight increase in the birth rate, which increased the population.

Changes in Land Ownership

What was the essential change in the ownership of land and what did it allow? What about new crops?

• Private property became essential.
• This allowed planting more quantity to make more revenue.
• New crops appeared, and the land and mechanization of production increased and diversified.

Population Growth Curves

Describe the evolution of the curves of birth, death,... Continue reading "Key Factors in Historical Economic and Social Change" »

**Demographic Impact**

In coastal areas, tourism significantly increases the population. This includes young adults seeking employment and adults or retirees relocating permanently. Tourism boosts employment in the tertiary sector and construction. In some declining rural, mountainous areas, and historic cities, tourism has helped slow down depopulation.

**Impact on Settlement**

On the coast, tourism and urban expansion encourage the formation of conurbations. This often results in high-density construction and land speculation. In some rural, mountainous, and urban areas, tourism has contributed to the rehabilitation of built heritage.

**Economic Impact**

Tourism generates over 12% of employment in tourism and related services, many of which require... Continue reading "Impact of Tourism: Demographics, Economy, Environment" »

Historical and Sociocultural Context of 18th-Century Europe

In 18th-century Europe, absolute monarchies dominated much of the continent, with exceptions such as Great Britain (a constitutional monarchy), Venice, and Switzerland. In Eastern Europe, where feudalism persisted, a form of government known as enlightened despotism emerged, extending to Prussia, Russia, Austria, and Spain. In 1776, the United States declared independence from Great Britain and, in 1787, proclaimed the first Constitution of the country and the entire world. The English parliamentary system, the U.S. Constitution, and the French Revolution of 1789 would serve as the starting points for the modern organization of society.

In economics, efforts were made to achieve industrialization.... Continue reading "18th Century Europe: Society, Politics, and Culture" »