Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Geography

The Advance Southwards

The Kingdom of Leon occupied current Extremaduran lands by 1230. With the union of Castile and Leon, Ferdinand III gave a decisive boost to the Reconquista. Starting from the Guadalquivir River, they conquered Cordoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248. Alfonso X took Cadiz and Murcia. Portugal occupied Faro in 1249. By the 13th century, only the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada remained.

Repopulation of the Guadalquivir

A significant portion of the territories were distributed as large estates to the nobility, clergy, and military orders that had participated in the Reconquista. These individuals hailed from Leon, Castile, and the Basque Country.

Livestock

The foundation of the economy was the Merino breed of sheep, which produced abundant,... Continue reading "Reconquista and Medieval Castile: Economy and Society" »

The Reconquista: Christian Expansion in Spain

The Reconquista, meaning "reconquest" in Spanish, refers to the historical period in the Iberian Peninsula of approximately 781 years between the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in 711 and the fall of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada in 1492. It is traditionally held to begin with the victory of the Asturians at the Battle of Covadonga in 722.

Key Stages of the Reconquista:

• 8th-10th Centuries: Territories north of the central Ebro valley, untouched by Muslim rule, and pockets of Christian resistance emerged. These Christians occupied largely empty territories, such as the Cunca del Duero.
• 11th Century - First Half of the 12th Century: The balance of power shifted between Christians and Muslims. Christian

Fall of the Roman Empire

Causes

• Economy: Increased public spending, rising taxes, low agricultural yields.
• Moral: Relaxing habits, arrival of new beliefs.
• Politics: Emperors' indecision, lack of army loyalty, appearance of warlords.
• Invasions of Barbarian Peoples

Barbarian Invasions

Invasions were a culminating event, not the sole cause. Germanic migrations, Mediterranean intentions, and various factors influenced the decline, leading to the appearance of Romance languages.

Features of Barbarian Peoples

• Farmers and ranchers, patriarchal families.
• Naturalistic polytheistic religion.
• Barter economy.
• Oral laws.

Barbarian Groups

• Visigoths: Originally Goths, located by the Danube River, formed an independent kingdom.
• Vandals: Migrated to North Africa, Indo-European

The Progress of Industry in Spain

Energy Changes and Technological Advances: In the first third of the 20th century, new sources of energy emerged, primarily oil and electricity. The advancement of electricity occurred in two phases: from 1880-1914, its use was restricted to public lighting, and between 1914-1930, it saw widespread use across industries. This period also witnessed a new revolution in transportation, particularly with the rise of the automobile.

Advancements in information transmission were also significant. The expansion of the telegraph began around 1860, followed by the telephone and radio broadcasts.

Industrial Growth and Transformation

Major transformations occurred with the appearance of new industries and the consolidation... Continue reading "20th Century Industrial Progress in Spain" »

Industrial Power in Europe: Resources and Sectors

Europe is a major industrial power, despite a limited supply of raw materials and energy sources.

Raw Materials in Europe

Europe has a deficit in mineral raw materials.

• Iron: Deposits in Southwestern Great Britain, Germany, and Northern France have become less significant. Russia remains a major global producer.
• Other Minerals: Many deposits are exhausted, such as British tin, and French aluminum or Spanish copper. Europe lacks essential minerals such as titanium and tungsten, and is forced to import large quantities of raw materials.

Energy Sources in Europe

Europe is also deficient in energy sources globally, which forces it to import nearly half of its energy.

• Coal: Abundant in the past, production

III. Diffuse City
- The city lies on the Q field around it, is dynamic and changes. It is said to be a ciudad difusa. Uses and Functions: The functions are established according to needs, developments, polygons, trains... Causes of Diffuse City: Growth is due to the price of land; the inhabitants seek cheaper areas, and this is possible due to private transportation and public infrastructure that help to bring certain rural areas into the city.
Consequences of Diffuse City: The growth of cities has generated some negative consequences:

• High consumption of soil: The expansion of the city has to spend to develop their ground-display, enabling service marks to increase, which raises the infrastructure needs for light, water, and gas.
• Constant mobility:

19th Century Industrialization and Social Change

The 19th Century: Factories, the business bourgeoisie, and industry had the town as their stage. The United Kingdom was the first to undergo this transformation. London was the most populous city in the world, and its growth was fueled by rural exodus and a high birth rate.

An Industrial Society

19th-Century Traditional Rural Societies: Populations dedicated to agriculture continued to exist without much change in some areas of industrialized countries.

Evolved Rural Societies: Activity was focused on agriculture and commercial markets. There was a push for specialization and increased agricultural productivity.

Urban Societies: These societies emerged from the process of industrialization and rural... Continue reading "19th Century Industrial Society: Classes & Labor" »

Key Historical Events

Intellectual Renaissance

The humanist movement born in Italy in the fourteenth century is considered the intellectual Renaissance. It encompasses the ideas developed by the writers of the time.

Reformation and Counter-Reformation

The Catholic Church experienced a deep crisis during the first half of the sixteenth century due to the actions of some of its members. This led to the reform movement driven by Martin Luther.

Early American Population

For most of the Quaternary period, the American continent was sparsely populated.

Mayan Culture Location

The Mayan culture flourished in Central America between the fifth and fifteenth centuries.

Mayan Organization

The Mayan social and economic structure was divided into the Old and New Empires.... Continue reading "Key Historical Events: Renaissance, Reformation, and Ancient Civilizations" »

Language and Society in Spain

Language is a major means of social cohesion and the hallmark of a community.

Geographical Varieties

Geographical varieties of language are related to the fragmentation experienced by that language as it extends across a space. These are called dialects and local dialects. Diachronically, every language is a dialect of another from which it comes.

Formation of Iberian Languages

The current Spanish language situation is the result of a pre-Roman substrate, a Romanization that did not equally affect all the territory, and an Arab invasion that divided the peninsula into two areas: the Arab and Christian.

Castilian Spanish

Castilian, a Romance language that emerged in an area little Romanized (Cantabria and North of Burgos)... Continue reading "Languages of Spain: A Sociolinguistic Overview" »