Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Urban Growth and Land Use Patterns

Urbanization signifies an increase in the proportion of people residing in towns and cities. Historically, most people tended to work and live in rural areas. However, throughout the 20th century, people continued to migrate to urban areas, seeking better opportunities such as improved jobs, housing, schools, hospitals, and shopping facilities.

Urban Land Use Models

A model is a theoretical framework that doesn't physically exist but helps to explain reality.

• Burgess: Proposed that all towns and cities have a *Central Business District* (CBD) at their core. His model depicted concentric circles, with zones based on the age of houses and the wealth of their occupants.
• Hoyt: Proposed his *Sector Model* after observing

Key Factors in Industrial Location

Physical and Environmental Factors

• Raw Materials: The factory needs to be close to these if they are heavy and bulky to transport.
• Energy Supply: This is needed to work the machines in a factory. Early industries were near to coalfields. Nowadays, electricity allows more freedom.
• Natural Routes: Some laws forbid the setting up of industries in places where they could destroy a valuable environment.
• Site and Land: Most industries require large areas of cheap, flat land on which to build their factories.

Human and Economic Factors

• Labour: A suitable labour force is essential. Cost and skill levels are important.
• Transport: A good transport network helps reduce costs and make the movement of materials easier.
• Capital:

The Territorial Dimension of Venezuelan Sovereignty

The territorial dimension of sovereignty is defined by the country's territory or sovereign space—the physical location in which the nation is situated. Venezuela is a country located in northern South America.

Geographical Location and Coordinates

Venezuela's location corresponds to the Northern Hemisphere, with its southern border situated close to the Equator line. Its territory consists of a compact landmass that extends evenly from east to west and from north to south. It also includes a set of hundreds of islands, cays, and islets in the Caribbean Sea.

The mainland is situated on the northern coast of South America, specifically between 0° 38' 53'' and 12° 11' 46'' North latitude, and... Continue reading "Venezuela's Sovereign Territory: Geography, Borders, and Maritime Dimensions" »

Secondary Industries and Manufacturing Processes

Secondary industries are those that make or manufacture things. They process raw materials or assemble components to create a finished product.

Raw Materials for Secondary Production

Raw materials are products obtained from primary sector activities, intended for transformation into industrial products in factories.

Types of Raw Materials

1. Vegetal Sources

   Supplied by:

   • Agriculture: Cotton
   • Fishing: Algae
   • Forestry: Wood

2. Animal Sources

   • Farming: Wool
   • Fishing: Fish, seafood

3. Mineral Sources

   Minerals are categorized as metallic or non-metallic:

   • Metallic Minerals

     • Iron (Construction)
     • Copper (Electric industry)
     • Uranium (Nuclear power stations)

   • Non-Metallic Minerals

     • Phosphates (Chemical industry)
     • Granite (Construction)
     • Slate (

Habitat Destruction and Its Far-Reaching Effects

Extinction is a natural process which is part of evolution. Today, there is a huge increase in the rate of extinction as a result of human actions. One simple alteration in an ecosystem can trigger a chain reaction that runs through the whole system. The great increase in human population has been at the expense of other species.

Deforestation Impacts

Deforestation: Forests contain useful food and raw material resources. They are an important part of the water cycle.

Loss of Wetlands

Loss of wetlands: Wetlands absorb and store carbon, maintain water quality, and encourage plant growth.

Increased Flooding Risks

Increased flooding risks are a direct consequence of habitat degradation.

Strategies for Environmental

Ancien Régime: Society and Governance

The Ancien Régime (Old Regime) was the expression used to describe the social, political, and economic structures that prevailed in Europe until the liberal revolutions of the late eighteenth century. It designates the set of rules governing social structures, forms of government, and property ownership.

Social Structure of the Ancien Régime

The society of the Ancien Régime was structured into three estates:

• The Clergy: The religious establishment.
• The Nobility: The privileged classes.
• The Common People (Third Estate): The rest of the population, including lower classes and workers.

Demographics and Political System

The demographic regime of this era was characterized by a high birth rate but also a high mortality... Continue reading "Europe's Transformation: Ancien Régime, Enlightenment, and Absolute Rule" »

Visigoths in Hispania

The Visigoths in Hispania were a Germanic tribe from eastern Europe. In 410, they invaded Rome under their leader Alaric. Nevertheless, they became allies of the Romans. They established a kingdom in the Roman province of Gaul, with the capital at Toulouse.

Next, the Visigoths attacked and defeated the Germanic tribes in the Iberian Peninsula: the Vandals, the Alans, and the Suevi. This gave them control of the Iberian Peninsula. In 507, the Franks forced them out of Gaul.

The Muslim Conquest of Hispania

The Muslim invasion of Hispania began in 711. The Umayyad general Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar with a small army. At the Battle of Guadalete, together Tariq and Musa conquered most of Hispania.

Al-Andalus:

7am: time to get up; 7:09: breakfast time; 8:01: off 2 school, off 2 work; 8:30: the eggs were schriveled and the toast was like stone; 9:15: time to clean; 10: the sun rise; 10:15: the garden sprinklers whirled up in golden founts; 12noon: the house lets the dog in; 2pm: the regiments of mice hummed; 2:15: the dog was gone; 2:35: bridge tables sprouted from patio walls; 4: the tables folded; 4:30: the nursery walls glowed; 5: the bath filled with clear hot water; 6-8: the dinner dishes manipulated like magic tricks; 9: the beds warmed their hidden circuits; 9:05: the house plays the poem "twcsr"; 10: the house began to die

Victorian England (1837–1901): Society and Politics

The first phase of Victorian England featured free-market trade, characterized by the law of supply and demand and competition among traders.

Britain possessed one of the world's best merchant marine fleets.

Politically liberal, the system awarded more power to the bourgeoisie (the wealthy class), who were instrumental in setting the laws and Acts between 1832 and 1885.

Key Parliamentary Reform Acts

• The Reform Act of 1832 (First Reform): Rural seats were removed, and Parliament was divided into two main groups: Conservatives and Liberals.
• The Reform Act of 1867 (Second Reform): New sectors, such as doctors and lawyers, were added to the electorate.
• The Reform Act of 1884 (Third Reform): Established

The Second Industrial Revolution: A New Era

The late 19th century marked a period of profound transformation, often referred to as the Second Industrial Revolution. This era brought significant advancements that reshaped economies and societies across the globe.

Timeline and Global Impact

• When: Primarily by the end of the 19th century.
• Where: Its influence spread across Europe, Japan, and North America.
• What Happened: New industrial changes dramatically improved Western economies and global production capabilities.

Key Innovations and Changes

This period was characterized by several groundbreaking developments:

• New Energy Sources: A shift from coal and steam to more efficient sources like oil and electric energy.
• Highly Developed Industrial Sectors: