Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Understanding Early Human History

Hominid Species

• Homo sapiens sapiens
• Homo neanderthalensis
• Homo erectus
• Australopithecus

The Paleolithic and Neolithic Periods

Paleolithic: The primary period of prehistory, also known as the Old Stone Age. Characterized by nomadic hunter-gatherer societies.

Neolithic: Follows the Paleolithic period. Marked by the beginning of food production (agriculture and livestock) and sedentary settlements.

Concern for the Afterlife

(Information about the reason for concern is missing from the original text.)

Prehistoric Painting

Cantabrian Painting: Naturalistic paintings, such as those found in Altamira.

Mediterranean Painting: Schematic group paintings.

Early Life and Egyptian Concepts

Houses

Simple private structures constructed... Continue reading "Key Aspects of Prehistory and Ancient Egypt" »

Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution profoundly changed the lives of people and social structures. It completed the process of the disappearance of the English peasantry and led to the emergence of large cities that became radical industrial centers.

Transformation of Occupational Structure and New Social Classes

The occupational structure of the population changed significantly. As the agricultural population decreased, the number of persons employed in various branches of industry increased, leading to the rise of two new social groups:

• The Proletariat (Working Class): These individuals worked in factories or workshops in exchange for a salary. The vast majority were former farmers who left the countryside to work

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution began in England around the 1780s and subsequently spread to Europe and the USA. It consisted of substituting the workforce of people and animals for machines, and replacing craft workshops with factories.

Economic Impact

The primary sector saw a rise in yields and productivity. For example, in 1650, one farm worker fed 1.5 persons, but by 1880, one worker could feed 2.5 persons.

Causes of the Revolution

• Introduction of new machines
• Improved tillage
• Quadrennial crop rotation
• Use of fertilizer to increase production, leading to more animals and more fertilizer (manure), thus improving production
• A new ownership structure of the land: the desire to privatize communal lands brought benefits by allowing

The primary or agricultural sector consists of economic activities related to the processing of natural resources into unprocessed primary products.

Traditional Energy Sources

Coal

Coal is a mineral fuel. Its advantage is abundance; its drawbacks are that it is a nonrenewable resource and highly polluting.

Producing countries: China, USA, India, and Russia.

Oil

Oil is a mineral composed of a blend of hydrocarbons. It is used after a refining process. Its advantages are easy extraction and transport; its inconveniences are that it is a nonrenewable resource and highly polluting.

Producing countries: Saudi Arabia, United States, Russia, Iraq, Mexico.

Natural Gas

Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons. Its origin is the same as that of oil. It has been... Continue reading "Primary Sector, Energy Sources, and Industry Types" »

State Organization Under the Catholic Monarchs

Government Institutions

The Catholic Monarchs set forth a number of objectives, primarily aimed at strengthening the authority of the monarchy, imposing an authoritarian monarchy, and creating a modern state.

To meet these objectives, the Catholic Monarchs had to reorganize the state through a series of steps:

• The Holy Brotherhood was established in 1476. This was a general meeting of local guilds with political and judicial functions. It also served as a military complement to the royal army. This general meeting disappeared in 1498, although local guilds remained.
• The political power of the nobility was reduced, though their economic power increased.
• Control over military orders was achieved since

Majolica

**To be decorated, parts were acquired at a lower cost, and thus the slab was imposed on metal objects.** He influenced all of Europe. The majolica ceramic body is covered with a porous coating with tin and painted with enamel colors. This technique, originating from the Islamic world, was widely used in the Iberian Peninsula and Italy, especially in Majorca, hence the term "majolica" (Italian *Maiolica* = Mallorca).

Once baked, the enamel is spread with a thin layer of copper or silver pigment mixed with ochre. It is then fired again, producing a total or partial metallization of the copper pigments. This gives the object a special shine and produces reflective effects. There is a wide color gamut.

Porcelain

Porcelain is the most refined... Continue reading "History and Types of Porcelain: From China to Europe" »

The Slave Trade and the Beginnings of Colonial Brazil

Portuguese explorers discovered Brazil while seeking trees whose roots produced ink to dye fabrics. These woods were called *pau-brasil* (Brazilwood) and exported to Europe. From 1580 to 1680, Brazil was the world's leading sugar producer. The sugar industry was powered by the allure of profits and the ambitions of landowners who saw a European market demanding American products. Sugar production was intrinsically linked to the purchase and sale of slaves, the slave trade.

The Dutch West India Company initiated a process that attracted significant capital for the exploitation of sugarcane. Almost all of the sugar industry was located on the shore. Due to the lack of usable roads and methods... Continue reading "Sugar, Slavery, and Absolutism in Colonial Brazil" »

The Phylloxera Crisis and the Rabassaires

The Catalan wine industry faced a devastating blow in 1879 when phylloxera, a destructive aphid, crossed the Pyrenees. By 1910, it had decimated all Catalan vineyards. The solution, implemented a few years later, involved replanting European vines grafted onto American rootstock, which were resistant to the pest. This crisis ignited a conflict between vineyard owners and Rabassaires (tenant farmers). La Rabassa Morta, a traditional contract, granted Rabassaires and their descendants the right to cultivate the land as long as the vineyard thrived. However, many landowners exploited the phylloxera crisis to evict Rabassaires or impose shorter-term contracts. This conflict persisted until the Second... Continue reading "The Catalan Wine Phylloxera Crisis and Agricultural Transformation" »

The fifteenth century is a time of profound change. Europe is divided by the Western Schism that originated in the late war of the XIV century. The marriage between the Catholic Monarchs improves the political situation. The development of trade and the growth of cities provided opportunities for the bourgeoisie, which encouraged the new class appreciation of worldly values. Culture became a sign of distinction between nobles and wealthy bourgeois, and the courts and universities replaced monasteries as the main centers of learning. In this new atmosphere, humanism began to diffuse, and in 1450, Gutenberg invented the printing press.

Liberal Land Reform in 19th Century Spain

The Liberal Land Reform was a process aimed at dissolving traditional agricultural production relations (the Old Scheme). This reform primarily took place between 1835 and 1837, under the inspiration of Mendizábal, when key rules were adopted for the abolition of the manorial system. These rules can be grouped into three main areas:

• Dissolution of the manorial system
• Decoupling of land
• Seizure of church and common lands (desamortización)

Spain's 19th Century Demographic Revolution

The Demographic Revolution refers to a sudden and significant increase in births. In Spain, during the nineteenth century, the population experienced an increase of over 76%. The causes included the disappearance of certain epidemics,... Continue reading "Historical Shifts: Spain's 19th Century Development" »