Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Society and Culture in Restoration Spain

The society of Restoration Spain was characterized as a dual society with two distinct groups:

• A vast agricultural interior with subsistence lifestyles and limited progress.
• A few industrialized areas where a modern society gradually emerged.

The connection between these two societies was weak, with many inland regions living in isolation. Poverty was widespread, hindering consumption, saving, industrial development, and social modernization.

The power block was formed by a bourgeois oligarchy, including Basque steel magnates, Catalan textile entrepreneurs, and Castilian cereal producers.

Society in Rural Areas

During the Restoration period, rural social groups included:

• Agrarian oligarchy, predominant in the

Urbanization and Societal Structures

Defining Key Terms

Neighborhood: Refers to the increase in the population living in urban areas within a country or region.

Latin America: This term is used because the countries grouped within it share a common root in their source languages, primarily Latin-based Spanish and Portuguese.

Anglo America: This term is used because these lands were primarily occupied by English settlers of Germanic origin.

National Emergency Committee

Objectives of the National Emergency Committee

• Public Works
• National Police
• Health
• Finance

Functions of the National Emergency Committee

• Prevent and counter the effects of natural disasters or any other source.
• Create constant and local emergency departments.
• Prepare annual and special budgets.

Primary Sector: Agriculture and Food Production

Primary Sector: Obtaining purchase-related activities and food production.

Agricultural activities are limited by physical factors:

• Weather: Tampa. Soft precipitation, moderate.
• Relief: Plan.
• Soil: Depending on your fertility.
• Altitude: Causes a decrease in temperature, unfavorable for crops.
• Latitude: Near the equator, there is more regular sunlight.

Agriculture is also practiced in Africa and North America, where there is less sunlight.

Agricultural Landscapes

Agricultural Landscapes: The landscape is changed to extract agricultural products.

Field Types

• Open fields: No barriers, long and regular.
• Closed fields: Barriers, many extensions, irregular shapes.

Cropping Systems

• Irrigated: Large single-crop.
• Polyculture:

Industrial Revolution (1750-1860)

The Industrial Revolution was a process transforming energy sources into mechanical work using machines, leading to mass production and surplus. This era witnessed significant changes:

• Climate & Demographics: Population growth, urbanization, and agricultural advancements.
• Trade & Transportation: Increased internal and external trade, growth of exchanges, and improved transportation.
• Machines: Powering factories and workshops.

Stages of Industrial Revolution

• 1st Stage (1750-1860): Steam, coal, and iron ore.
• 2nd Stage (1860-1914): Electricity, oil, internal combustion engine, and steel.

Agricultural Transformations

• Norfolk system, new housing, and new crops from America (e.g., potatoes).
• New tools and increased

Agriculture in Underdeveloped Regions

This occurs in underdeveloped countries. It has low productivity, just enough for consumption. Rudimentary agricultural tools are used; modern machinery or chemical fertilizers are not used.

Slash-and-Burn Agriculture

• Occurs in equatorial or tropical rainforest climates where there is dense vegetation. The farmer fells the forest, slashes, and then burns it to clear a small patch for cultivation. Crops are grown in the small plot, fertilized with ash, using simple tools to produce food for home consumption. As the land is exhausted, the farmer leaves and clears another part of the forest, starting the process again. This is thus a shifting cultivation. This agricultural technique is considered a form of sustainable

Key Concepts of Urban Areas

City Concept

Quantitative: Over 10,000 inhabitants.

Economic Activity: Primarily tertiary sector.

Secondary Sector Level and Influence: Building and construction.

Spatial Criterion: Exercising influence over a territory.

Location

Specific Location: Concrete place where the city is situated.

Relative Location: Location in relation to other places.

Urban Morphology

External appearance of the city.

Urban Structure

Division of the city into areas with distinct morphology, features, and functions:

• Old Town: Part of the city that was urbanized from the outset.
• Ensanche: Growth of the city after the demolition of the walls, leading to a regular plan with wide, straight roads.
• Periphery: Outermost areas of the city.

Urban Functions

Main... Continue reading "Urban Concepts and City Dynamics: Key Definitions" »

History of Agriculture

Agriculture, the practice of cultivating land to obtain food, appeared in the Neolithic period. In the late 18th century, the UK experienced an agricultural revolution. This led many peasants (campesinos) to move to cities in search of work, starting a slow process of rural depopulation.

Agriculture Today

• Developed Countries: Agriculture employs less than 5% of the active population and achieves high productivity.
• Underdeveloped Countries: Agriculture employs the majority of the population, often using traditional farming techniques, resulting in low productivity.

Factors Influencing Agricultural Use

Physical Factors

• Climate: Each plant requires specific temperature and humidity conditions to grow.
• Relief: Altitude and the slope

Phase 1: Hunter-Gatherer (1,000,000 - 10,000 BCE)

1.5 million years ago, populations of Australopithecus were being replaced by those of Homo habilis, which gave way to Homo erectus. The first modern humans, Homo sapiens, appeared in northwest Africa. Immersed in the savanna, and subjected to the same rules as other animals, the first human hunters and gatherers were exposed to extremes of climate, often suffering from hunger. This was soon complemented by the development of small animal hunting. Early humans were omnivorous, and precisely in its power spectrum is a key to its success. The other is the management of natural elements to make tools.

Very early, humans tried to understand and master nature: seeking shelter, finding water, understanding... Continue reading "Human Evolution: From Hunter-Gatherer to Agriculture" »

The United States: From Civil War to Economic Powerhouse

The Civil War's Impact on the US Economy

The United States began its industrialization later than some European nations. The process was initially slow until the advent of the Civil War. This war resulted in a strong acceleration of industrial growth, ultimately leading the US to become the world's leading power. The principal drawback for European populations was that the industrialization process in the US was initially concentrated in the East and needed to extend throughout the entire country.

The US had several advantages:

• Vast, untouched lands.
• Most of the population was of European origin, unlike Asian industries. The European population that had not been absorbed by European industries

Trade involves the purchase and sale of goods in order to meet the needs of the population. This former activity has allowed contact between cultures. Subsequently, with the onset of currency, it was possible to give a more accurate value to goods.

Domestic Trade

Domestic trade takes place within a country.

• Wholesale: Carried out by wholesalers who purchase large quantities of goods, sold to producers and other traders.
• Retail: Involves selling small quantities directly to the public.

Foreign Trade

Foreign trade is what a country conducts with other countries, involving exports and imports.

The Trade Balance

The trade balance is the difference between the value of goods a country sells abroad and the value of goods it buys from other countries:

• If the