Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Toward the Contemporary World

At the end of the 18th century, certain movements in the economy overrode attempts at protectionism, which was based in most countries of old Europe. Industry was widely dispersed, operating in workshops, and the small textile industry was concentrated. After 1760, this process became known as the Industrial Revolution. This reform began in England, where the bourgeoisie controlled power, helping to transform agriculture. The Industrial Revolution marked the transition from a traditional agrarian economy to one marked by industry and machine production.

Demographic Revolution: Population Increases

Causes:

• Drop in mortality.
• Eradication of diseases (Black Death).
• Progress of personal and urban hygiene.
• Collection of garbage

Spain's Diverse Agricultural Landscapes

Agricultural landscapes represent the morphology of rural areas, a combination of the natural environment and agricultural activity. The diversity of these combinations explains the variety of existing agricultural landscapes.

The Agricultural Landscape of Wet Spain

This region comprises the north and northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, characterized by rugged terrain with few flat areas and wet oceanic climates throughout the year.

Agrarian Structure

Historically, a large population couldn't be supported by the land, leading to migration and an aging population today. Settlements are dispersed in villages and parishes.

Farmers own small plots (minifundismo) surrounded by hedges, decreasing profitability and... Continue reading "Spain's Agricultural Landscapes: A Regional Analysis" »

During the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, while a unified state as a legal entity didn't exist, the monarchs ruled over a collection of territories with shared interests. They were aware of this commonality and, while retaining the traditional titles of their respective kingdoms, sought to create new institutions and homogenize existing ones. Key examples include the Inquisition, the establishment of permanent Ambassadors, and the strengthening of the Army.

Government Institutions

Several key government institutions emerged or were consolidated during this period:

Viceroyalties

Viceroyalties were established as representatives of the monarchs in realms where they were frequently absent. Viceroys held significant political, judicial, and military... Continue reading "The Catholic Monarchs: Unifying Spain Through Institutions" »

Natural Gas: Problems and Market Dynamics

Natural gas problems: They are not renewable. Asian economies are beginning to increase demand for the product, which will raise prices. Major producers: Russia, USA, Iran, China, Saudi Arabia. Refiners: Western USA. Consumers: USA, Japan, Germany, and Asian economies.

Problems with Natural Gas

Producers are trying to regulate and control the market, similar to the oil market. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), comprised of 11 states, controls 78% of petroleum. Oil prices are still high but not excessive, to prevent economic crises (drop in consumption).

Consumers are diversifying their purchasing locations and seeking energy alternatives, although these are often more expensive.... Continue reading "Natural Gas and Water Resources: Challenges and Solutions" »

Life and Labor in Early 20th Century Barcelona

Precarious Living Conditions

At the dawn of the 20th century, working-class families in Barcelona endured conditions of near-subsistence. They often lived in cramped, small houses, frequently shared with other families. Barcelona itself was undergoing rapid growth, leading to a process of social disintegration, particularly affecting its most vulnerable populations.

The city's social fabric was distinctly stratified:

• Immigrants: Many resided in the older, more established areas.
• Bourgeoisie: Concentrated in the affluent Eixample district.
• Artisans: Settled in villages recently annexed by Barcelona.
• Working Class: Predominantly located in the industrial zones.

Harsh Working Environments

Working conditions... Continue reading "Barcelona's Labor History: From Precariousness to the 8-Hour Day" »

America's Roaring Twenties: Uneven Prosperity

Who Benefited from the 1920s Economic Boom?

While the 1920s are often remembered as a period of widespread prosperity, the economic boom did not benefit all Americans equally. Certain groups and industries experienced significant gains:

• The Rich and Middle Classes: These groups saw substantial increases in wealth and living standards. By 1929, a staggering one-third of all income was earned by just 5% of the workforce, highlighting the concentration of wealth.
• New Consumer Industries: Sectors like automobiles and electrical goods (e.g., refrigerators, washing machines, radios, vacuum cleaners) thrived. There was massive demand for these new, exciting products. The adoption of the assembly line enabled

EU Tourism Policy: Objectives and Modalities

The European Union's tourism policy aims to achieve several key objectives:

• Facilitating tourism as an element of European integration.
• Promoting new modalities, such as rural tourism and eco-tourism.
• Improving information and protection for tourists.
• Enhancing the preparation of the sector through improved professional training.

Spain's Service Sector: Growth, Types, and Location

The tertiary sector in Spain has grown significantly, reaching a level comparable to other developed countries. This growth is attributed to several factors:

• Increased life expectancy of the population.
• A generalization of the welfare state.
• Increased demand for services from other economic activities.
• Implementation of regulations

The Industrial Revolution: Origins and Profound Impact

Before the Industrial Revolution, society faced significant limitations that contributed to an economic downturn. Subsistence agriculture and cottage industries dominated, hindered by technological barriers. The population had limited purchasing power, and trade was slow, often hampered by customs duties within countries.

Birth of British Industrialization

In 18th-century Britain, particularly in Lancashire, the industrial process concentrated with the creation of numerous factories. The development of basic industries—textile and steel—marked what is known as the British Industrial Revolution.

Key Drivers of Modern Industry

The development of modern industry was driven by profound transformations... Continue reading "The British Industrial Revolution: Economic and Social Transformation" »

Property Tax (IBI) Regulations in Spain

Property Tax (Impuesto sobre Bienes Inmuebles or IBI) regulation is detailed in the Law on Local Finances Recast 2004 and in the Real Estate Cadastre Act, also a consolidated text of 2004.

Taxable Event, Taxpayer, and Accrual

The taxable event is holding an interest in the property. The law distinguishes four rights:

1. Administrative concession on the property: the taxpayer shall be the licensee.
2. Surface rights on the property: the taxpayer will have surface rights.
3. Usufruct right over the property: the taxpayer will be the beneficiary.
4. Property rights over the property: the taxpayer will be the owner.

Each taxable event excludes the others. The excluded are those who are behind in this order.

The law distinguishes... Continue reading "Property Tax (IBI) in Spain: Understanding the Regulations" »

Al-Andalus: Economic and Social Organization

Economic Advancements

In Al-Andalus, the economic foundation remained rooted in agriculture, but significant improvements were introduced. Irrigation technology advanced considerably, with the widespread use of irrigation ditches and wells. New crops were also introduced, such as citrus fruits, rice, and sugarcane.

While the ownership structure of land remained largely unchanged, with many large estates, the conquest led to a shift in ownership.

Urban Revitalization

With the arrival of the Muslims, there was a revitalization of urban life, and large cities emerged. The Islamic city was structured into several distinct parts:

• Medina: The core of the city, containing the main mosque and the souk (market)