Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Understanding Early Human History

Hominid Species

• Homo sapiens sapiens
• Homo neanderthalensis
• Homo erectus
• Australopithecus

The Paleolithic and Neolithic Periods

Paleolithic: The primary period of prehistory, also known as the Old Stone Age. Characterized by nomadic hunter-gatherer societies.

Neolithic: Follows the Paleolithic period. Marked by the beginning of food production (agriculture and livestock) and sedentary settlements.

Concern for the Afterlife

(Information about the reason for concern is missing from the original text.)

Prehistoric Painting

Cantabrian Painting: Naturalistic paintings, such as those found in Altamira.

Mediterranean Painting: Schematic group paintings.

Early Life and Egyptian Concepts

Houses

Simple private structures constructed... Continue reading "Key Aspects of Prehistory and Ancient Egypt" »

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution began in England around the 1780s and subsequently spread to Europe and the USA. It consisted of substituting the workforce of people and animals for machines, and replacing craft workshops with factories.

Economic Impact

The primary sector saw a rise in yields and productivity. For example, in 1650, one farm worker fed 1.5 persons, but by 1880, one worker could feed 2.5 persons.

Causes of the Revolution

• Introduction of new machines
• Improved tillage
• Quadrennial crop rotation
• Use of fertilizer to increase production, leading to more animals and more fertilizer (manure), thus improving production
• A new ownership structure of the land: the desire to privatize communal lands brought benefits by allowing

State Organization Under the Catholic Monarchs

Government Institutions

The Catholic Monarchs set forth a number of objectives, primarily aimed at strengthening the authority of the monarchy, imposing an authoritarian monarchy, and creating a modern state.

To meet these objectives, the Catholic Monarchs had to reorganize the state through a series of steps:

• The Holy Brotherhood was established in 1476. This was a general meeting of local guilds with political and judicial functions. It also served as a military complement to the royal army. This general meeting disappeared in 1498, although local guilds remained.
• The political power of the nobility was reduced, though their economic power increased.
• Control over military orders was achieved since

Majolica

**To be decorated, parts were acquired at a lower cost, and thus the slab was imposed on metal objects.** He influenced all of Europe. The majolica ceramic body is covered with a porous coating with tin and painted with enamel colors. This technique, originating from the Islamic world, was widely used in the Iberian Peninsula and Italy, especially in Majorca, hence the term "majolica" (Italian *Maiolica* = Mallorca).

Once baked, the enamel is spread with a thin layer of copper or silver pigment mixed with ochre. It is then fired again, producing a total or partial metallization of the copper pigments. This gives the object a special shine and produces reflective effects. There is a wide color gamut.

Porcelain

Porcelain is the most refined... Continue reading "History and Types of Porcelain: From China to Europe" »

The Slave Trade and the Beginnings of Colonial Brazil

Portuguese explorers discovered Brazil while seeking trees whose roots produced ink to dye fabrics. These woods were called *pau-brasil* (Brazilwood) and exported to Europe. From 1580 to 1680, Brazil was the world's leading sugar producer. The sugar industry was powered by the allure of profits and the ambitions of landowners who saw a European market demanding American products. Sugar production was intrinsically linked to the purchase and sale of slaves, the slave trade.

The Dutch West India Company initiated a process that attracted significant capital for the exploitation of sugarcane. Almost all of the sugar industry was located on the shore. Due to the lack of usable roads and methods... Continue reading "Sugar, Slavery, and Absolutism in Colonial Brazil" »

The Phylloxera Crisis and the Rabassaires

The Catalan wine industry faced a devastating blow in 1879 when phylloxera, a destructive aphid, crossed the Pyrenees. By 1910, it had decimated all Catalan vineyards. The solution, implemented a few years later, involved replanting European vines grafted onto American rootstock, which were resistant to the pest. This crisis ignited a conflict between vineyard owners and Rabassaires (tenant farmers). La Rabassa Morta, a traditional contract, granted Rabassaires and their descendants the right to cultivate the land as long as the vineyard thrived. However, many landowners exploited the phylloxera crisis to evict Rabassaires or impose shorter-term contracts. This conflict persisted until the Second... Continue reading "The Catalan Wine Phylloxera Crisis and Agricultural Transformation" »

The fifteenth century is a time of profound change. Europe is divided by the Western Schism that originated in the late war of the XIV century. The marriage between the Catholic Monarchs improves the political situation. The development of trade and the growth of cities provided opportunities for the bourgeoisie, which encouraged the new class appreciation of worldly values. Culture became a sign of distinction between nobles and wealthy bourgeois, and the courts and universities replaced monasteries as the main centers of learning. In this new atmosphere, humanism began to diffuse, and in 1450, Gutenberg invented the printing press.

The Nueva Planta Decrees

The end of the War of the Spanish Succession meant the triumph of centralizing and standardizing absolutism. A new organization of the monarchy was established in the kingdoms defeated in the war. It was considered that the best way to govern was with the same laws and institutions, all dependent on the Crown. This new form of government came through the Nueva Planta Decrees, abolishing the privileges of Aragon and Valencia, as a result of the military occupation after the Battle of Almansa. The second decree was promulgated in 1715 for Mallorca, and for Catalonia in 1716. Only the Basque Country and Navarre maintained their historic privileges as a reward for their loyalty to Philip V.

The organization of the territories... Continue reading "Nueva Planta Decrees and Bourbon Reforms in Spain" »

Understanding the Enlightenment Era

The Enlightenment takes place in the era of liberal revolutions encouraged by the bourgeoisie, from the English Revolution of 1688, which had created a Parliament, to the French Republic of 1789.

Defining the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment is a historical period characterized by significant changes in the mentality and social organization of European countries during the eighteenth century.

Enlightenment Across Europe

The English Enlightenment

England is considered the country that originated the Enlightenment. The English Enlightenment had an empirical basis (Locke, Hume, etc.) and was oriented towards the cultivation of the natural sciences, such as physics developed by Newton.

The French Enlightenment

In France,... Continue reading "The Enlightenment: History, Philosophy, and Key Ideas" »

Medieval Kingdoms: The Rise of Royal Power

Medieval kingdoms were characterized by a marked polycentrism, where the heritage and character of power depended mainly on land ownership. In the kingdoms from the 11th century, estate representation bodies began to proliferate: Courts, Parliaments, Estates-General, where the King met with the bourgeoisie, the higher clergy, and nobility.

The King's Tax Battle with the Towns

Distinct battles were fought here; the most characteristic is the king's tax battle with the towns. The king needed money to fund his campaigns and shore up his authority among the feudal lords, and only the cities were able to provide it (in exchange for something). This brought up the system of covenants between the king and cities:... Continue reading "Medieval Kingdoms: Rise of Royal Power & Decline of Feudalism" »