Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Reign of the Catholic Monarchs

Domestic Policy of the Catholic Monarchs

Dynastic Union: Castile and Aragon

The Catholic Monarchs achieved the territorial unification of the Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of Portugal. Through the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, the two kingdoms were united under the same monarchs. However, each kingdom maintained its own distinct institutions, laws, currencies, and languages.

Administrative Reforms and Royal Power

The monarchs implemented several reforms to centralize power and improve governance:

• Royal Council (Consejo Real): Strengthened as the primary advisory and governmental body, diminishing the political role of the Cortes (parliamentary assemblies).
• Permanent Army: Establishment

Advances in Commercial Agriculture

From the second half of the nineteenth century, commercial agriculture gradually became prominent on the Mediterranean coast, focusing on both domestic and export markets. The cultivation of vines, citrus fruits, rice, and sugar cane was widespread, alongside other products like ECS fruits, olive oil, and esparto grass. Notably, vineyards, a traditional crop, experienced significant expansion due to increased demand for wine derivatives. Between 1850 and 1875, Spain tripled its wine exports to Europe, largely because of the devastating phylloxera plague that ruined French vineyards around 1863. Consequently, Spain became the world's leading wine producer between 1870 and 1880. However, traditional cereal cultivation... Continue reading "Transformation of Spanish Agriculture and Industry in the 19th Century" »

The Industrial Revolution

A Transformation of Society and Technology

The Industrial Revolution marked a significant turning point in history, characterized by the replacement of manual tools with machines, the substitution of human and animal power with new energy sources, and the shift from domestic production to the factory system. This revolution had an enormous impact on the structure of society and was accompanied by remarkable advances in technology. Originating in England in the second half of the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution signified the end of the transition from feudalism to capitalism, marked by the primitive accumulation of capital and the supremacy of the market in production. It also completed the bourgeois revolution... Continue reading "Industrial Revolution: History and Impact on Society" »

The Tertiary Sector: An Overview

The tertiary sector is the economic sector that provides services to the population. It is the predominant economic sector today, characterized by its grand diversity.

Services Included

This sector encompasses a wide range of services, including:

• Health
• Education
• Tourism
• Expansion of transport

The tertiary sector has reached its maximum development due to the information society, technical and scientific advancements, the globalization of the economy, and the growth of international exchanges. This is sometimes referred to as the revolution of the tertiary or quaternary sector.

Sector 3.0: Science and Technology

This sector includes activities related to technique and science. The demand for scientific and technological... Continue reading "Understanding the Tertiary Sector: Services, Growth, and Impact" »

17th and 18th Century Europe: Society, Politics, and Culture

Population Dynamics and Early Modern Crises

Europe's population faced stagnation in the 17th century due to significant challenges. Regions like Selge, Pisidia, experienced the devastating impact of the Bubonic Plague. Coupled with large-scale epidemics, famines, and widespread deaths, these crises severely impacted demographic growth. Despite periods of good harvests, the overall trend was one of vulnerability and decline.

Social Structure: Privileged and Non-Privileged

European society was rigidly stratified, characterized by a stark division between the Privileged and Non-Privileged estates. This unequal structure defined social and economic status:

• The Privileged Estates:
  • Nobility:

A: Albania to Algeria

• Albania - Tirana
• Germany - Berlin
• Andorra - Andorra la Vella
• Austria - Vienna
• Afghanistan - Kabul
• Saudi Arabia - Riyadh
• Armenia - Yerevan
• Azerbaijan - Baku
• Argentina - Buenos Aires
• Angola - Luanda
• Algeria - Algiers

B: Belgium to Brazil

• Belgium - Brussels
• Belarus - Minsk
• Bosnia and Herzegovina - Sarajevo
• Bulgaria - Sofia
• Bangladesh - Dhaka
• Bahamas - Nassau
• Belize - Belmopan
• Bolivia - Sucre
• Brazil - Brasília

C: Vatican City to Côte d'Ivoire

• Vatican City - Vatican City
• Croatia - Zagreb
• Czechia - Prague
• Cyprus - Nicosia
• Cambodia - Phnom Penh
• North Korea - Pyongyang
• South Korea - Seoul
• China - Beijing
• Canada - Ottawa
• Costa Rica - San José
• Colombia - Bogotá
• Chile - Santiago
• Republic of the Congo - Brazzaville
• Democratic Republic of the Congo - Kinshasa
• Côte

Spain's Atlantic Region

Physical Characteristics

• Climate: Wet, cloudy, with frequent fog and much precipitation.
• Mountains and mountain ranges near the Cantabrian Sea.

Vegetation

• Ground vegetation covered with forests.
• Deciduous trees (beech).
• Many pastures.
• Heathland shrubs such as bracken and gorse.

Social Characteristics

• Cattle ranching: Semi-stabled cattle.
• Intensive agriculture: Smallholdings (minifundios), potatoes, and corn.

Demographics

• Diverse: Industrial cities with large populations, and villages with small populations.

Habitat

• Dispersed, with cottages or groups isolated in small villages.

Activities

• Fishing: 60% of Spain's total, including cod and whiting.
• Industry: Concentrated in the Basque Country and Cantabria.

Inland Spain

Physical Characteristics

• Climate:

Differences Between the Crowns of Castile and Aragon

The Crown of Castile

Government and Royal Power

The Crown of Castile was a unified kingdom where the monarch held significant power. Castilian kings wielded greater authority than other rulers on the Iberian Peninsula, possessing the legal right to declare war and administer justice. While the Castilian Cortes (parliament) could not legislate, they held considerable influence, particularly in their ability to approve or deny royal requests for taxes.

Economic Foundations

The Castilian economy was primarily based on agriculture and livestock farming. The growth of Merino sheep was particularly central, with high-quality Merino wool becoming a primary export. Transhumant flocks moved across an extensive... Continue reading "Crowns of Castile and Aragon: Divergent Paths and the Age of Discovery" »

Roman Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula

• The Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula and the process of Romanization.

The conquest of the Iberian Peninsula was developed in stages between 218 BC, the date of commencement of the intervention of the Romans in the peninsula in the context of struggles between Rome and Carthage (Second Punic War), and the year 19 BC when they captured the territories in the north of Spain. Roman rule lasted until the collapse of the empire in the late 5th century AD.

Romanization: Economy

Exploitation of resources such as metals (primarily gold and silver), slaves (townspeople revolted against the Romans) used in mines, estates, and agricultural resources. Agriculture was based on the exploitation of the Mediterranean... Continue reading "Roman Conquest and Romanization of Iberian Peninsula" »

Extremadura's 18th Century Economy

Agriculture and Livestock Dominance

The economy of Extremadura in the 18th century was primarily agricultural, with a significant predominance of the livestock sector. This long-standing situation, dating back to antiquity, often proved detrimental to farming. Several factors contributed to this:

• Despite abundant fertile fields, land ownership was concentrated in the hands of the landed nobility.
• The powerful privileges granted to the Honourable Council of the Mesta meant vast tracts of pasture land could not be cultivated.
• These factors also led to a decrease in cultivated land, worsening the plight of day laborers and land tenants.

During the 18th century, Extremadura remained an isolated territory, poorly documented... Continue reading "Extremadura in the 18th Century: Economy, Society, and Population" »