Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Tertiary Services and Activities

These encompass all immaterial products of economic activity designed to meet our needs. Examples include:

• Transport
• Healthcare
• Education

Post-Industrial Society

This describes an economy characterized by a strong service sector, where services constitute the most significant portion of GDP and employ over 60% of the active population. The contributing factors include:

• Mechanization
• Industrial production
• Increased living standards
• Policy development
• Research and development
• Information and communication technologies

Social Services

These are activities that ensure the welfare of people. In affluent countries, they are a consolidated "right," whereas in developing countries, they often represent a significant demand and a... Continue reading "Key Economic and Social Concepts Defined" »

Geography and Environment

• Acid rain: Phenomenon that occurs due to the concentration of nitrogen and sulfur gases in the atmosphere.
• Aquifer: Geological formation that allows the circulation of water.
• Arid area: Area where water has no river outlet to the sea.
• Coast: Land slope.
• Desertification: A process by which land that does not have desert weather becomes desertified.
• Earthquake: A sudden and violent shaking of the ground, sometimes causing great destruction, as a result of movements within the earth's crust or volcanic action.
• Erosion: The process of intact soil wear (rock).
• Estuary: The tidal mouth of a large river, where the tide meets the stream.
• Fallow: Land left unplanted to recover its fertility.
• Fault: A discontinuity forming a rock fracture

The Primary Sector in Spain

The primary sector has traditionally been the most important sector of the Spanish economy. However, since the mid-20th century, the development of the industrial and financial sectors has reduced its overall significance.

Major Crops

Cereals

Barley, wheat, and corn are primarily grown in the Spanish communities of Castile and León, Castile-La Mancha, and Aragon.

Vineyards and Olive Groves

Olive cultivation is concentrated in Andalusia, particularly in the provinces of Jaén and Córdoba. Vineyards dominate Castile-La Mancha, Valencia, Catalonia, Andalusia, and La Rioja.

Orchards

Citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, etc.) are primarily grown in the Valencian Community (60% of production). Non-citrus fruits like apples, cherries,... Continue reading "Spain's Primary Sector: Agriculture, Livestock, and EU Integration" »

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was the result of a set of economic and technological changes, which first occurred in Britain in the mid-eighteenth century and which led to a profound transformation of the economy and society. In the mid-eighteenth century, Europe began a process of growth (demographic revolution). The population grew from 140 million in 1750 to 187 million in 1800 and 266 million in 1850. The highest growth was in Britain. The causes of this growth were the increase in food production, improved hygiene, and advancements in medicine. There was, therefore, a decrease in mortality and a slight increase in the birthrate.

Population Increase and its Impact

The population increase led to an increase in food demand.... Continue reading "The Industrial Revolution: Transformation of Economy and Society" »

Primary Sector Activities

The primary sector encompasses activities related to obtaining resources and food production. This includes agriculture, livestock farming, fishing, and forestry.

Agricultural Landscape

An agricultural landscape is a landscape modified to obtain products from nature. Key elements include plots, tillage systems, and settlements.

Understanding Plots

A plot is a division of agricultural land. Plots differ in size (large or small), shape (regular or irregular), and boundaries (open or enclosed).

• Openfield: Open plots without fences, typically small and regular in shape. Common in Central Europe.
• Enclosed fields or Bocage: Relatively large, irregular plots enclosed by walls or fences. Common in the European Atlantic region.

Polyculture

Agriculture and 19th Century Economic Issues

The agricultural sector, while very important in the 19th-century economy, was very poor during this century. The set of confiscations carried out during this century, known collectively as the "liberal land reform," did not produce the desired impact. The lack of materials such as compost or machinery slowed the development of this sector, resulting in the failure of livelihoods to sustain the population and triggering ongoing subsistence crises.

These problems were compounded by other factors hampering economic development. These mainly included:

• Delaying the demographic transition
• Migration
• Poor education
• Lack of energy sources
• The country's peripheral position relative to other industrialized countries

Moreover,... Continue reading "Industry and Economy in 19th Century Spain" »

Spain in the 19th Century: A Period of Transformation

Population Growth and Urbanization

Spain experienced a significant population increase of 60% during the 19th century, particularly in regions like Madrid, Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, the Canary Islands, and the Basque Country. This growth was fueled by several factors, including:

• Decreased mortality rates
• Increased agricultural production
• Improved diet and hygiene
• Medical advancements

Simultaneously, a wave of migrant farmers contributed to increased urbanization. The driving forces behind this migration were:

• Abolition of the manorial system
• Concentration of land ownership
• Harsh living conditions in rural areas
• Technical changes in agriculture
• Improvements in agricultural transportation

The migration... Continue reading "Spain's 19th Century: Population, Agriculture, and Industry" »

Historical Periods: Ancient Regime and Contemporary Age

Understanding historical periods is crucial for grasping societal evolution. Two significant epochs are the Ancient Regime (AR) and the Contemporary Age (RI).

The Ancient Regime (AR)

The Ancient Regime refers to the period until the second half of the eighteenth century. It was characterized by:

• Forms of Energy: Predominantly human and animal power.
• Society: Agrarian, with a hierarchical social structure.
• Political Power: Absolute monarchies.
• Economic Doctrine: Mercantilism.
• Beliefs: Theocentrism.
• Labor and Population: Predominantly rural, with craft and manufacturing (guilds) as key economic activities.
• Challenges: Frequent subsistence crises.

The Contemporary Age (RI)

The Contemporary Age began... Continue reading "The Industrial Revolution: Eras, Innovations, and Societal Impact" »

The Rise and Fall of Al-Andalus (711-1031)

In 711 CE, most of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Muslim forces, marking the beginning of nearly eight centuries of Muslim rule. While Muslim dominance was clear from 711 to 1031, Christian influence began to rise significantly after 1031.

A small group of Arab and Berber troops from North Africa crossed the Strait of Gibraltar in 711, initially intending a simple looting raid. This led to what is known as the Battle of the Guadalete River. The Muslims referred to the peninsular territory under their rule as Al-Andalus.

Periods of Muslim Rule in Al-Andalus

• The Wilaya (711-756)

  After the conquest, Al-Andalus became a wilaya, or province, of the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus. Its capital was established

The Bronze Age in Spain

The Bronze Age in Spain, also known as the MegaLoad period, is characterized by the discovery of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin. This discovery allowed the manufacture of stronger utensils and weapons. The use of this new metal produced social differences, as shown by the funerary offerings found in tombs. The most representative cultures of this stage are Los Millares and El Argar.

At the end of the second millennium BC, the El Argar culture gradually disappeared, marking the beginning of the final period of the Bronze Age. The area received numerous influences from within. The chief influence would come from the kingdom of Tartessos at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.

Megalithic Monuments of the Bronze Age

During... Continue reading "Bronze Age in Spain: Pre-Roman Towns & Tartessos" »