Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was the result of a set of economic and technological changes, which first occurred in Britain in the mid-eighteenth century and which led to a profound transformation of the economy and society. In the mid-eighteenth century, Europe began a process of growth (demographic revolution). The population grew from 140 million in 1750 to 187 million in 1800 and 266 million in 1850. The highest growth was in Britain. The causes of this growth were the increase in food production, improved hygiene, and advancements in medicine. There was, therefore, a decrease in mortality and a slight increase in the birthrate.

Population Increase and its Impact

The population increase led to an increase in food demand.... Continue reading "The Industrial Revolution: Transformation of Economy and Society" »

Primary Sector Activities

The primary sector encompasses activities related to obtaining resources and food production. This includes agriculture, livestock farming, fishing, and forestry.

Agricultural Landscape

An agricultural landscape is a landscape modified to obtain products from nature. Key elements include plots, tillage systems, and settlements.

Understanding Plots

A plot is a division of agricultural land. Plots differ in size (large or small), shape (regular or irregular), and boundaries (open or enclosed).

• Openfield: Open plots without fences, typically small and regular in shape. Common in Central Europe.
• Enclosed fields or Bocage: Relatively large, irregular plots enclosed by walls or fences. Common in the European Atlantic region.

Polyculture

Agriculture and 19th Century Economic Issues

The agricultural sector, while very important in the 19th-century economy, was very poor during this century. The set of confiscations carried out during this century, known collectively as the "liberal land reform," did not produce the desired impact. The lack of materials such as compost or machinery slowed the development of this sector, resulting in the failure of livelihoods to sustain the population and triggering ongoing subsistence crises.

These problems were compounded by other factors hampering economic development. These mainly included:

• Delaying the demographic transition
• Migration
• Poor education
• Lack of energy sources
• The country's peripheral position relative to other industrialized countries

Moreover,... Continue reading "Industry and Economy in 19th Century Spain" »

Spain in the 19th Century: A Period of Transformation

Population Growth and Urbanization

Spain experienced a significant population increase of 60% during the 19th century, particularly in regions like Madrid, Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, the Canary Islands, and the Basque Country. This growth was fueled by several factors, including:

• Decreased mortality rates
• Increased agricultural production
• Improved diet and hygiene
• Medical advancements

Simultaneously, a wave of migrant farmers contributed to increased urbanization. The driving forces behind this migration were:

• Abolition of the manorial system
• Concentration of land ownership
• Harsh living conditions in rural areas
• Technical changes in agriculture
• Improvements in agricultural transportation

The migration... Continue reading "Spain's 19th Century: Population, Agriculture, and Industry" »

Historical Periods: Ancient Regime and Contemporary Age

Understanding historical periods is crucial for grasping societal evolution. Two significant epochs are the Ancient Regime (AR) and the Contemporary Age (RI).

The Ancient Regime (AR)

The Ancient Regime refers to the period until the second half of the eighteenth century. It was characterized by:

• Forms of Energy: Predominantly human and animal power.
• Society: Agrarian, with a hierarchical social structure.
• Political Power: Absolute monarchies.
• Economic Doctrine: Mercantilism.
• Beliefs: Theocentrism.
• Labor and Population: Predominantly rural, with craft and manufacturing (guilds) as key economic activities.
• Challenges: Frequent subsistence crises.

The Contemporary Age (RI)

The Contemporary Age began... Continue reading "The Industrial Revolution: Eras, Innovations, and Societal Impact" »

The Bronze Age in Spain

The Bronze Age in Spain, also known as the MegaLoad period, is characterized by the discovery of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin. This discovery allowed the manufacture of stronger utensils and weapons. The use of this new metal produced social differences, as shown by the funerary offerings found in tombs. The most representative cultures of this stage are Los Millares and El Argar.

At the end of the second millennium BC, the El Argar culture gradually disappeared, marking the beginning of the final period of the Bronze Age. The area received numerous influences from within. The chief influence would come from the kingdom of Tartessos at the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.

Megalithic Monuments of the Bronze Age

During... Continue reading "Bronze Age in Spain: Pre-Roman Towns & Tartessos" »

Cultural Evolution of Indigenous Peoples in Venezuela

While the indigenous peoples located in what is now the territory of Venezuela may not have attained the same degree of development as other American cultures like the Mayas, Aztecs, or Incas, their evolution is still evident. Aboriginal communities in Venezuela experienced a gradual development through the exchange of techniques between different groups.

Stages of Cultural Development

Agricultural Training

This stage, between 1500 and 1000 BC, consisted of small communities of hunters, fishermen, and gatherers of wild fruit and seashells.

Beginning of Agricultural Activity

Around 1000 BC, communities began combining hunting, fishing, and gathering with the rudimentary cultivation of wild fruits,... Continue reading "Cultural Evolution and Indigenous Areas of Venezuela" »

Population Dynamics

Vegetative Growth

The difference between birth and mortality rates. Various metrics measure factors related to the natural movement of a population.

Population Density

The relationship between the number of inhabitants and the surface area (in square kilometers) they occupy.

Labor Force

The group of people aged 16 and over who are available to supply labor for the production of goods and services and are actively seeking employment.

Unemployment Rate

The percentage of the workforce that is unemployed relative to the total active population.

Migration

The movement of a population in space; the departure of people from their place of origin.

Immigration

A movement of population; the arrival of people at their destination.

Internal Migration

Developed... Continue reading "Population Dynamics and Urbanism: Key Concepts" »

Global Distribution of Economic Activities

Europe accounts for 8%, North America for 2%, Asia for 45%, and Africa for 58%.

Agricultural Activities

Agricultural activities occupy an important place because our food depends on this sector. These activities are developed in the agricultural landscape, characterized by:

1. Plot

• Shape, size, limit: Open field, closed field

2. Tillage Systems

• Harnessing the sun: Intensive, extensive
• Product range: Polyculture, monoculture
• Water management: Irrigated, dry

3. Settlement

• Sparse, centered

Types of Agriculture

• Subsistence: Itinerant cremation, extensive dry, irrigated rice
• Market: Opens in developed countries
• Objectives: Revenue + cost through field machining, production specialization, rapid commercialization of agricultural

Fishing in Spain

The Spanish Fishing Regions

The Spanish fishing space is organized into eight regions: Northwest, Cantabrian, Tramontana, Levant, South-Mediterranean, South Atlantic, Balearic, and Canary Islands. The most important region for its catch is the Northwest.

Fisheries Production Features

• The species caught: Fish constitute 3/4 of the catch, with the remaining being shellfish. White fish, such as hake and whiting, are particularly valuable.
• By tonnage: Sardines and anchovies are primarily caught for canning, followed by tuna and bonito.
• The main destination for fishing: Human consumption. Most of the catch is sold fresh, although salting, preserves, and freezing are increasing.
• Fishing landed: Experienced high growth until 1976, followed