Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Hominization Process

The hominization process encompasses the evolutionary changes from a primate ancestor to the appearance of the first hominid species. This required a series of adaptations and modifications.

Prehistoric Eras

Paleolithic

The Paleolithic is a prehistoric stage characterized by the use of carved stone tools, although other materials were also used.

Neolithic

The Neolithic period began about 5,200 years ago, marked by the adoption of agricultural techniques, livestock, and pottery.

Bronze Age

The Bronze Age is the period of civilization which developed the metallurgy of bronze, resulting from a copper alloy.

Iron Age

The Iron Age is the stage in the development of a civilization in which the discovery and use of iron became widespread.... Continue reading "Human Evolution and Prehistoric Eras" »

Globalization: A Comprehensive Overview

Globalization is a series of changes transforming the planet's distinct societies into a process of continuous reciprocal relationships, primarily involving increasingly interdependent countries.

Key Agencies Supporting Globalization

• Economic Globalization: Characterized by increased economic interconnectedness between countries.
• Political or Geopolitical Globalization: A global sense that transcends individual country boundaries.
• Cultural Globalization: A tendency towards a planetary culture modeled after Western values, often transmitted through advertising, film, and television.

Principal Problems of Globalization

• The gap between rich and poor countries widens.
• Poorer countries struggle to afford essential

Tertiary Sector in Spain

The tertiary sector, or service sector, is a vital part of the Spanish economy, encompassing trade, transport, tourism, and other services.

Trade in Spain

Domestic Trade

Domestic trade is widespread in Spain, particularly in urban areas and those with higher income levels. It is dominated by small shops and traditional trading activities. In recent years, it has undergone a major restructuring:

• Modernization driven by new consumption patterns and technology.
• Expansion of new forms of trade.
• Crisis of traditional small businesses struggling to compete with large commercial enterprises.

Foreign Trade

Foreign trade has experienced spectacular growth. The Spanish trade balance remains in deficit, meaning imports exceed exports,... Continue reading "Spain's Service Sector: Trade, Transport, Tourism" »

Key Factors of the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions

1. Agriculture

• Three-year rotation systems: Cereals, legumes, and forages.
• New crops: Most importantly, potatoes.
• Mechanization: Led many to refer to an "agricultural revolution." Harvesters and tractors replaced animals, increasing productivity.
• Use of fertilizers: Fertilizers supplemented special nutrients.
• Livestock: One of the biggest changes. The previous clash between agriculture and livestock disappeared with the Industrial Revolution; they became complementary. New products emerged: milk, meat, cheese, etc.

2. Industry

Industry incorporated technological innovations that increased productivity. Spillovers occurred; the textile sector influenced metallurgy and steel (feedback).

• Capital:

The Reign of the Catholic Monarchs

Domestic Policy of the Catholic Monarchs

Dynastic Union: Castile and Aragon

The Catholic Monarchs achieved the territorial unification of the Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of Portugal. Through the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, the two kingdoms were united under the same monarchs. However, each kingdom maintained its own distinct institutions, laws, currencies, and languages.

Administrative Reforms and Royal Power

The monarchs implemented several reforms to centralize power and improve governance:

• Royal Council (Consejo Real): Strengthened as the primary advisory and governmental body, diminishing the political role of the Cortes (parliamentary assemblies).
• Permanent Army: Establishment

Advances in Commercial Agriculture

From the second half of the nineteenth century, commercial agriculture gradually became prominent on the Mediterranean coast, focusing on both domestic and export markets. The cultivation of vines, citrus fruits, rice, and sugar cane was widespread, alongside other products like ECS fruits, olive oil, and esparto grass. Notably, vineyards, a traditional crop, experienced significant expansion due to increased demand for wine derivatives. Between 1850 and 1875, Spain tripled its wine exports to Europe, largely because of the devastating phylloxera plague that ruined French vineyards around 1863. Consequently, Spain became the world's leading wine producer between 1870 and 1880. However, traditional cereal cultivation... Continue reading "Transformation of Spanish Agriculture and Industry in the 19th Century" »

The Industrial Revolution

A Transformation of Society and Technology

The Industrial Revolution marked a significant turning point in history, characterized by the replacement of manual tools with machines, the substitution of human and animal power with new energy sources, and the shift from domestic production to the factory system. This revolution had an enormous impact on the structure of society and was accompanied by remarkable advances in technology. Originating in England in the second half of the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution signified the end of the transition from feudalism to capitalism, marked by the primitive accumulation of capital and the supremacy of the market in production. It also completed the bourgeois revolution... Continue reading "Industrial Revolution: History and Impact on Society" »

The Tertiary Sector: An Overview

The tertiary sector is the economic sector that provides services to the population. It is the predominant economic sector today, characterized by its grand diversity.

Services Included

This sector encompasses a wide range of services, including:

• Health
• Education
• Tourism
• Expansion of transport

The tertiary sector has reached its maximum development due to the information society, technical and scientific advancements, the globalization of the economy, and the growth of international exchanges. This is sometimes referred to as the revolution of the tertiary or quaternary sector.

Sector 3.0: Science and Technology

This sector includes activities related to technique and science. The demand for scientific and technological... Continue reading "Understanding the Tertiary Sector: Services, Growth, and Impact" »

Spain's Atlantic Region

Physical Characteristics

• Climate: Wet, cloudy, with frequent fog and much precipitation.
• Mountains and mountain ranges near the Cantabrian Sea.

Vegetation

• Ground vegetation covered with forests.
• Deciduous trees (beech).
• Many pastures.
• Heathland shrubs such as bracken and gorse.

Social Characteristics

• Cattle ranching: Semi-stabled cattle.
• Intensive agriculture: Smallholdings (minifundios), potatoes, and corn.

Demographics

• Diverse: Industrial cities with large populations, and villages with small populations.

Habitat

• Dispersed, with cottages or groups isolated in small villages.

Activities

• Fishing: 60% of Spain's total, including cod and whiting.
• Industry: Concentrated in the Basque Country and Cantabria.

Inland Spain

Physical Characteristics

• Climate:

Differences Between the Crowns of Castile and Aragon

The Crown of Castile

Government and Royal Power

The Crown of Castile was a unified kingdom where the monarch held significant power. Castilian kings wielded greater authority than other rulers on the Iberian Peninsula, possessing the legal right to declare war and administer justice. While the Castilian Cortes (parliament) could not legislate, they held considerable influence, particularly in their ability to approve or deny royal requests for taxes.

Economic Foundations

The Castilian economy was primarily based on agriculture and livestock farming. The growth of Merino sheep was particularly central, with high-quality Merino wool becoming a primary export. Transhumant flocks moved across an extensive... Continue reading "Crowns of Castile and Aragon: Divergent Paths and the Age of Discovery" »