Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Problems Affecting Relief and Soil

Alterations Made to the Relief

Changes to the relief are caused by mines and quarries as well as by transport infrastructure. The landscape is marred, and locations of geological importance are destroyed.

This problem affects natural environments and is more common in poor countries, where mining provides the foundation for their economy.

Alterations Made to the Soil

Two main problems are erosion and pollution.

Erosion and Desertification

Erosion of the soil is due to deforestation and inappropriate agricultural and livestock farming methods. In developed countries, intensive and single-crop farming are common; in the poorest countries, it is due to not leaving farming land fallow and excessive grazing of pasture... Continue reading "Problems Affecting Relief and Soil" »

Ancient Iberia

Celts

Celtic peoples, an Indo-European group, migrated to the Iberian Peninsula between the 10th and 5th centuries BC. Organized into clans and tribes, their hierarchical society placed warriors at the top. These cattle farmers resided in fortified hilltop villages known as castros, which were largely self-sufficient due to limited trade. Their dwellings were typically rounded, and they practiced polytheism and cremation in designated necropolis.

Celtiberians

Representing a more developed Celtic group due to Iberian influence, the Celtiberians inhabited larger settlements called oppida and possessed a written language.

Iberians

Indigenous to the Iberian Peninsula, Iberians were influenced by colonizers such as the Phoenicians and... Continue reading "Ancient Iberia: Celts, Iberians, and Roman Conquest" »

Deforestation and Biodiversity Decline

Deforestation: Causes and Consequences

Deforestation is the removal of plant cover. It is caused by:

• The mass burning or felling of trees to transform land for agricultural, livestock farming, or residential uses.
• Supplying timber to industries.
• The building of infrastructure.
• The collecting of firewood.

As a result of deforestation:

• Levels of carbon dioxide increase.
• Humidity levels, along with water reserves, are diminished.
• Soil erosion increases due to the lack of protection and binding provided by vegetation.
• Animal and plant species become extinct due to the disappearance of natural habitats.

Damage to Woodlands and Jungles

Developed countries: Damage is most widespread in temperate and frigid woodland regions,... Continue reading "Deforestation's Impact on Biodiversity and Ecosystems" »

New York City: Top Attractions

Here are some of the most iconic and must-see attractions in New York City:

1. Statue of Liberty

   Located on Liberty Island, at the entrance to New York Harbor, the Statue of Liberty is an iconic symbol of freedom and democracy. It was a gift from France to the United States and has been an important landmark since its inauguration in 1886.

2. Empire State Building

   This iconic New York skyscraper is located on Fifth Avenue and is famous for its art deco architecture. With its 102 floors, the Empire State Building offers impressive panoramic views of the city from its observation deck on the 86th floor.

3. Chinatown

   It is a vibrant and bustling neighborhood in lower Manhattan, known for its Chinese community and distinctive culture.

Cultural Concepts

Popular Culture and Taboos

Soccer: Originating in the UK in 1863, soccer became a global phenomenon with standardized rules.

Taboos: Examples include pork (Islam), fish without scales or cloven-hoofed animals (Judaism), and cows (Hinduism).

Cultural Diversity: Often promoted by geographic isolation.

Internet Diffusion: Spread globally, primarily between 1995 and 2017.

Uniform Landscape: Exemplified by activities like golf, which create similar environments worldwide.

Cultural Landscape: The interaction between culture and the environment, resulting in modifications to the landscape.

Negative Effects of Popular Culture: Can threaten environmental quality.

Language

Lingua Franca: An international language used for communication (e.g.,... Continue reading "Cultural Concepts: Language, Religion, and Globalization" »

Growth of Cities

1. Improvement in agriculture (ploughing)
2. More food = more people = bigger town = town convert into city
3. It began in countries such as Italy, where the ancient cities founded by the Romans had never completely disappeared
4. Urban areas also grew up in new places, such as Russia and Scandinavia
5. Don't have a sewer system
6. Inside the city walls, houses were crowded together and streets were narrow
7. The center of daily life was the square, where the market was held
8. Monasteries and convents were also built in urban areas
9. Universities were founded, replacing monasteries as the main source of knowledge

Urban Society

• New social group, the bourgeoisie (third estate)
• They were bankers, money lenders, and money changers
• There were other groups like the servants,

Industrialization: Definitions and Global Distribution

Types of Industries

Consumer Goods Industry

Examples: Bread, clothing

Heavy Industry

Example: Fire (representing energy production)

Capital Goods Industry

Example: Cars

Industrial Areas

Silicon Valley

A nickname for the southern portion of the San Francisco Bay Area, known for its concentration of computer companies.

Science Parks vs. Industrial Estates

Science Parks: Focus on high technology and promote research through collaboration between universities, businesses, and government.

Industrial Estates: Gather traditional industries in a physical location.

Major Industrial Areas

Exploitation Colonies: They had economic value. The indigenous population was governed and economically exploited by a white minority originating from the colonizing country. For example, India and Great Britain.

Settler Colonies: They had a socio-economic value. The majority were emigrants from the colonizing country, and they were considered overseas provinces with governmental autonomy. For example, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand under British control.

Protectorates: They were areas of strategic interest. The indigenous population maintained its own government and administration but under the supervision of the colonizing power. For example, Morocco was a protectorate of France and Spain.

Before the rainy season, the fields are ploughed and rice is planted in fertilized nurseries. During the monsoon season, once the plants have grown, they are transferred to the paddy fields. After the monsoon, when the crops begin to ripen, water is removed and rice is harvested.

Organic: Environmentally Friendly Techniques

Organic techniques such as the use of organic fertilizers and crop rotation are gaining popularity due to their environmentally friendly nature. Although they result in higher quality products, they often have lower yields and are more expensive. However, there is an increasing number of consumers who are willing to pay more for better organic products.

Organic Farming in New Countries: Regional Specialization

In new countries,

HOT ZONE

equatorial- between 10ºN 10ºS , temperatures around 25ºC with little variation. Hot all the year. Annual precipitation higher than 2000mm. Rainforest (dense green vegetation)

tropical-10º and 30º N, the same S, annual temperature 20ºc variation between 10, 3ºC. Precipitation 2000mm south east asia, less than 400mm near desserts. Tropical rainforest and savannah.

desert- shares latitudes with tropical climates.  annual 20ºc, bid differences between day and night. Unde 250mm, irregular. Vegetation only at oasis.

TEMPERATE CLIMATES

mediterranean. 30º and 40º. Hot summers , mild winters, annual temperature between 10ºc  and 18ºc. Between 900mm and 300mm a year irregular. Woodland (holm oak and cork trees) and scrub.

Oceanic or