Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Economy

Understanding Microeconomic Policies & Government Roles

Defining Microeconomic Policy

Microeconomic Policy: A set of measures and actions undertaken by the government concerning microeconomics, examining how markets function.

Market Regulation and Competition Conditions

The state is responsible for:

• Guaranteeing Property Rights: Through laws, judicial systems, police, and defense.
• Defending Competition: Reducing market power and maximizing existing competition.
• Correcting Information Asymmetry: Setting minimum quality standards to improve market transparency.
• Correcting Externalities: For example, by setting maximum production limits.

Modifying Exchange Conditions

Government actions can alter market exchanges:

• Buyer Incentives: Granting aid or subsidies

Chapter 3: Municipal Sports Infrastructure Plan

This chapter outlines one of the municipality's major plans concerning sports development and infrastructure construction.

The Local Sports Infrastructure Plan

The Local Sports Infrastructure Plan (PALE) compiles the municipal census of existing sports facilities and spaces, along with the desired future state. It also includes privately owned sports facilities and those belonging to universities. The PALE is established in accordance with the guidelines of the Regional Master Plan for Sports Facilities and the General Urban Development Plan of each municipality.

Purpose

The PALE provides a physical support system for developing municipal sports. Its purpose is the effective management of sports infrastructure... Continue reading "Municipal Sports Infrastructure Plan: Development & Optimization" »

Understanding Public Debt: Definition and Purpose

Public debt is a set of debt obligations or debts maintained by a state (not just the central government) against individuals or another country. Debt keeps the public sector operating, often involving intervention as traders.

The qualification of values is a way to obtain financial resources. Public debt is an instrument used by states to solve the lack of timely money.

Target Costs Financed by Public Debt

Public debt is used to finance various target costs:

• Current Expenditure: Financing public services (acquisition or lease of goods and services, and salaries to civil servants).
• Investment Expenses (Capital Expenditure): Funds allocated to maintain and expand the productive capital of the country.

International Trade: Free Trade vs. Protectionism

Free Trade

Free trade is the doctrine that defends commercial transactions between two or more countries conducted without impediments. To boost international trade, governments use these tools to promote exports:

• Official bodies: They offer advice to exporters. In Spain, this is done by the Institute of Foreign Trade and Chambers of Commerce.
• Financial assistance: This is provided in the form of export loans.
• Grants: These support businesses.

Protectionism

Protectionism is an economic policy that supports the establishment of barriers to free trade among countries to safeguard national production. Protectionist measures aim to protect national industry and agriculture, which can be adversely affected... Continue reading "Understanding Free Trade, Protectionism, and Balance of Payments" »

Chapter 3: Project Preparation and Evaluation

Pre-Investment

This stage determines the amount to be invested, and the project will be evaluated by measuring its profitability.

• Project Profitability: Measures the profitability of the business, regardless of who undertakes it.
• Investor Profitability: Measures the return on equity for the investor if they carry out the project.

Project Classification

A) According to the Objective of the Study:

• Project profitability
• Investment
• Capacity to pay for the project

B) According to the Type of Investment:

• Creation of a new business
• Modernization project:
  • Internalization
  • Externalization
  • Replacement
  • Expansion
  • Abandonment

Social Assessment of Projects

Compares the benefits and costs that a particular investment may have on... Continue reading "Project Preparation and Evaluation: Key Stages" »

Film Budgeting Essentials

General Budget Structure

The film budget is an essential tool used to estimate future costs. The budget is typically divided into two main categories:

• Below the Line (BTL): Refers to costs determined by market prices for factors clearly defined in the industry (e.g., equipment rentals, non-star crew wages).
• Above the Line (ATL): Consists of the costs involved in policy decisions made by the film production management. These costs are often accessible only to executive and managerial levels and include major talent fees and contingencies.

Budget Models and Data Inputs

There is no single, universal budget model. The numerical values that populate the budget sheets are derived from several key sources:

1. A Database: Lists the

Wages: Wages are the remuneration for work performed. The demand for labor influences wage levels. The mechanism of job creation is driven by companies. The quantity of labor demanded depends on factors such as:

• The level of wages and the price of goods and services.
• The productivity of the worker relative to the wage level.
• The characteristics of the population.

Employment Policy

Employment policy encompasses a set of plans aimed at reducing unemployment within an economy. Before implementing such policies, it's crucial to understand the characteristics of the population.

Population Characteristics

Population characteristics can be categorized based on their degree of participation in the production process:

• Working-age population: Individuals aged

The Product Life Cycle: A Biological Parallel

The product life cycle draws a biological parallelism, suggesting that products, like living organisms, go through stages of birth, maturity, and death. Every product typically experiences four distinct phases:

• Introduction: This is the phase where the product enters the market.
• Growth: Consumers identify with and begin to consume the product, leading to increased sales.
• Maturity: Sales stabilize as the product reaches its peak market penetration.
• Decline: The demand for the company's manufactured product decreases, often as a consequence of strategies used in previous stages or market shifts.

Distribution: Connecting Products to Consumers

Marketing, particularly distribution, is the variable most closely... Continue reading "Mastering Product Life Cycle, Distribution, and Pricing Strategies" »

**Funding Sources**

Financial sources are categorized as follows:

According to Ownership of Resources

• **Own Financing:** Capital contributed by partners or owners, and reserves.
• **External Financing:** Resources that generate a debt or obligation.

According to the Length of Time

• **Long-Term:** Members' contributions, loans, and borrowings.
• **Short-Term:** Bank loans and other short-term loans.

According to the Origin of Funds

• **Internal Financing (Self-Financing):** Generated within the company through savings.
• **External Financing:** Funds sourced from outside the company.

**Shareholder Rights**

• Participate in the sharing of benefits in proportion to the number of shares held.
• Subscribe to shares in capital expansions on a preferential basis.
• Be informed

Consequences of Confiscation and Agrarian Change

The process of confiscation, or Desamortización, had several significant consequences for Spain's agrarian structure and society:

1. It did not primarily aim to allocate land among the poorest or enact agrarian reform, but rather to raise money for the state.
2. In the medium and long term, it helped increase the overall volume of agricultural product.
3. The extension of sales is estimated to have affected up to 50% of the arable land.
4. It also led to an expansion of cultivated areas and a more productive agriculture.
5. Other contributing factors included the abolition of tithes, the dissolution of the Mesta (shepherds' guild), improved transportation, and a more protectionist economic policy.
6. The increase in