Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Computers

A programming language is an artificial language designed to express computations that can be performed by a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to create programs that control the behavior of a machine, to express algorithms precisely. Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computer field, with many more being created every year. Most programming languages describe computation in an imperative style, i.e., as a sequence of commands.

Requirements and Objectives

A computer programming language is a language used to write computer programs, which involve a computer performing some kind of computation or algorithm and possibly control external devices such as printers, disk drives,... Continue reading "Characteristics and Requirements of Programming Languages" »

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Data Structure (Syllabus)

Semester & Branch: 3rd sem CSE/IT Teachers Assessment : 10 Marks
Theory: 4 Periods per Week Class Test : 20 Marks
Total Periods: 60 Periods per Semester End Semester Exam : 70 Marks
Examination: 3 Hours TOTAL MARKS : 100 Marks

Objective :

The effectiveness of implementation of any application in computer mainly depends on the that how effectively its information can be stored in the computer. For this purpose various -structures are used. This paper will expose the students to various fundamentals structures arrays, stacks, queues, trees etc. It will also expose the students to some fundamental, I/0 manipulation techniques like sorting, searching etc

1.0 INTRODUCTION: 04

• 1.1 Explain Data, Information, data types
• 1.2 Define

IPv6 Packet Format: Base Header

Each IPv6 packet consists of a mandatory base header followed by the payload. The payload is made up of two parts: optional extension headers and the upper-layer data. The base header is 40 bytes long, whereas the extension headers and the data from the upper layer can contain up to 65,535 bytes of information.

The base header has 8 fields:

• Version: A 4-bit field that defines the version of IP, such as IPv4 or IPv6. For IPv6, the value of this field is 6.
• Priority: A 4-bit field that defines the priority of the packet, which is important in connection with traffic congestion.
• Flow Label: A 24-bit field designed for providing special handling for a particular flow of data.
• Payload Length: A 2-byte field used to define

3/10/16 Notes

Chapter 7/8

Top-Down Design

Takes the most basic aspect of a program and breaks it down into subprograms.

Control Structure

An expression that determines the order in which a program executes.

In Python, this is an if statement.

It can also be a looping statement.

Boolean Expression

A "True or False" program statement.

Composite Data Types

Example:

• numbers[0] = 1066
• numbers[1] = 1492
• numbers[2] = 999
• numbers[3] = 553
• numbers[4] = 1892

Example Code:

for i in range(3):
    print(numbers[i])

Arrays

When data is being read into an array, a counter is updated for each operation (e.g., for i in range(5)).

Sequential Search of an Unsorted Array

A sequential search examines each item in turn and compares it to the target item. If it matches, the item is found.... Continue reading "Top-Down Design and Control Structures in Python" »

Categories of Data Models

• Entity: Represents a real-world object or concept.
• Attribute:
  • Represents some property of interest.
  • Further describes an entity.
• Relationship: Represents an association among two or more entities.
• Entity-Relationship model
• Relational data model: Used most frequently in traditional commercial DBMSs.
• Object data model:
  • New family of higher-level implementation data models.
  • Closer to conceptual data models.
• Physical data models: Describe how data is stored as files in the computer.
• Access path: Structure that makes the search for particular database records efficient.
• Index:
  • Example of an access path.
  • Allows direct access to data using an index term or a keyword.

Schemas, Instances, and Database State

• Database schema: Description of a

Computing

Computing is the automatic processing of information with computers.

Input and Output

Input: Data entered into the computer.
CPU: Processes the information.
Output: The processed information is displayed.

Binary System

Computers use the binary system (0 and 1).
Bit (b): Smallest unit of information (0 or 1).
Byte (B): Group of 8 bits. Example: 1010 0001
Characters are usually expressed with 1 B (8 bits).

Character Encoding

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange): Represents characters using binary code.
ISO-8859-1: An extension of ASCII, uses 1 byte for characters. Example: A = 0100 0001 (65), = 0111 1110 (126)

Hardware

The physical components of a computer.

Internal Components

• Motherboard
• CPU

External Devices (Peripherals)

• Input:

SOFTWARE TESTING

Testing can only show the presence of errors, not their absence. The goal of testing is confidence.

• Validation: Are we building the right product? What does the customer need?
• Verification: Are we building the product right? Functional/Non-Functional requirements.

SOFTWARE INSPECTION VS. SOFTWARE TESTING

While inspection will go through the code without running the program, testing will run the program and look at the results. Incomplete programs can only be inspected, not tested. Inspections can control aspects of good software (maintainability…), not just the results.

TEST CASE:

• Requirements
• Data/Input
• Actions
• Expected Results

TEST CASE PRINCIPLES:

• A test tries to find flaws in a program.
• A good test case will show a possible defect

Optimization Problem and LP Relaxation

The objective function for an optimization problem is: Min 3x – 2y, with constraints x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0. x and y must be integers. Suppose that the integer restriction on the variables is removed. If so, this would be a familiar two-variable linear program; however, it would also be an example of an LP relaxation of the integer linear program.

Integers in Linear Programs

Integers cannot be used in linear programs.

• False

Simple Linear Regression Model

In a simple linear regression model, y = b0 + b1x + eb1, b1 represents the intercept.

Time Series Recurring Pattern

A time series that shows a recurring pattern over one year or less is said to follow a cyclical pattern.

Binary Integer Program Variables

In binary integer... Continue reading "Fundamentals of Optimization and Statistical Modeling" »

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