Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Competitive examination

Entrepreneurship and Resource Management

Entrepreneurship is the process of discovering new ways of combining resources. When the market value generated by this new combination of resources is greater than the market value these resources can generate elsewhere individually or in some other combination, the entrepreneur makes a profit.

To develop a new project, there are some essential key elements:

• Focus
• Money as a source of resources and capabilities
• The right people with the right initiative

In a startup, you have the possibility to focus on one single idea, and usually, teams have great initiative. However, startups need significant funding to be able to develop such projects. On the opposite side, corporations, which have great amounts of money... Continue reading "Entrepreneurship, Leadership, and Global Strategy" »

1.1 Defining Quality: Performance and Expectations

Quality = Performance (how it works) / Expectations. If Q > 1, the customer has a positive feeling. The customer determines his or her expectations.

Definition of quality: A group of properties and characteristics of a service or a product that has the ability to satisfy different needs. Some dimensions of quality are reliability, durability, service, reputation, and more. These dimensions are independent.

• Performance — how well the product or service works.
• Expectations — what the customer anticipates or requires.
• Dimensions of quality — reliability, durability, service, reputation, etc.

1.2 Enemies of Quality and Cultural Changes

Common enemies of quality include:

• Lack of definition: Responsibilities

Golden circle:

This relates to the innovation. If a company is able to attract those who share its beliefs, it is also able to connect easier with innovators.

This is a graph made up of three circles, each inside the other. Each circle has a meaning and a way to apply it to our business efficiently.

We can explain the operation of the Golden Circle in such a way that while most companies ask themselves the answers to the question 'what' as their starting point, they are fully aware of the 'how', but very few companies are clear about the 'why'.

The 'what' responds to what we do and what we want to do. The 'how' responds to the processes through which we carry out our actions, and the 'why' would respond to the reason why we develop our business.... Continue reading "The Golden Circle: Driving Innovation and Quality Management" »

1. Grimm's Law

Jacob Grimm formulated a law in 1822 by which he accounted for an explanation about Indo-European and Germanic consonants and their corresponding development. In other words, he explained how certain consonant sounds changed and developed. According to him, the original Indo-European voiceless stops p/t/k were changed to the fricatives f/þ/h in the Germanic languages. Also, the aspirates bh/dh/gh became voiced fricatives β/đ/y, and then, the voiced stops b/d/g. The original voiced stops b/d/g changed later to voiceless stops in the Germanic languages so b/d/g turned into p/t/k (h). The Germanic Sound Shift is the most distinctive feature marking off the Germanic languages from the languages to which they are related.

2. Verner'

Linguistic Contributions to Foreign Language Teaching

What is a language? It is both a state (érgon) and an activity (energeia).

Traditional Language Concepts and Saussure

Plato believed that language was a copy of reality, while Aristotle argued for the conventional origin of language. Ferdinand de Saussure built on the belief that language as a form could be analyzed and responded to certain laws. He stated, "Language is a representation, and not a substance."

Functional Linguistic Theory and Structuralism

The functional investigative method involves searching for and isolating minimum units applied to language. Distributionalism is based on the possibility of dividing the spoken chain into regular units through distributional analysis.

Chomsky:

The Spanish Electoral System

Spain holds several types of elections for different levels of government, each with its own set of rules and representation systems.

• Local Authorities: Elects city and town councillors.
• Autonomous Parliaments: Elects members for the regional governments.
• National Parliament (Cortes Generales): Elects members for the Congress of Deputies and the Senate.
• European Parliament: Elects Spain's representatives (MEPs).

Most elections, including those for the Congress, Autonomous Parliaments, and European Parliament, use a proportional representation system based on the D'Hondt method.

The Congress of Deputies: Proportional Representation

The Congress of Deputies has 350 members. The electoral district in Spain is the province,... Continue reading "Understanding Spain's Electoral System and D'Hondt Method" »

The Natural Approach

This method is based on the ideas and contributions of Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen.

Approach

Krashen and Terrell view communication as the primary function of language. The theory and research of learning are grounded on Krashen’s five core hypotheses:

• Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis
• Monitor Hypothesis
• Natural Order Hypothesis
• Input Hypothesis
• Affective Filter Hypothesis

Design

Regarding types of learning and teaching activities, there is a gradual progression.

Procedure

In all activities, the instructor maintains a constant flow of “comprehensible input,” using key vocabulary, appropriate gestures, context, repetition, and paraphrase to ensure the input is understood.

Suggestopedia

Suggestopedia is a specific set of learning... Continue reading "Natural Approach and Suggestopedia: Language Teaching Methods" »

We can define pronunciation in two senses. First, it is used as part of a code of a particular language. Second, it is used to achieve meaning in contexts of use. In the phonological system of a language, we should distinguish between the segmental elements and the supra-segmental elements. The phonemes constitute the segmental elements of speech. In turn, stress, prominence, rhythm, and intonation are considered the supra-segmental elements.

Segmental Elements

Vowel System

There are 20 distinct vowel sounds that exist; 12 correspond to pure phonemes and 8 are related to two pure phonemes, the so-called diphthongs. There are three main descriptive criteria we call vowel parameters:

• Lip position
• Vertical tongue position
• Horizontal tongue position

Daniel... Continue reading "Phonological System of the English Language" »

Romanticism

Romanticism was a cultural and political movement that took place in both Germany and England. The great majority of critics and historians agree that the Romantic period began in 1798, when Wordsworth and Coleridge published Lyrical Ballads. This period would last until 1837, with the beginning of the Victorian Era. Romanticism arose as a reaction against the rationality of the Enlightenment and neoclassical precepts. Thus, this movement can be understood as a break with reason.

Romanticism in the Arts

Romanticism reached preponderance in all artistic facets. Although the name "romantic" has been given to people of those times, the word is anachronistic; in other words, these people did not consider themselves as Romantics. This term... Continue reading "Romanticism in Literature: Key Features and Influence" »