Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Chemistry

National University: Santiago Antunez de Mayolo

Course: General Chemistry

Subject: Introduction to the Periodic System II

School: Agricultural Engineering

Teacher: Victor Martinez Montes

Members:

• Alva Matilla Jesus

1. Title

Chemical Bonding I

2. Aim

• Distinguish how substance properties depend on their type of bond.
• Investigate the linkage present in ionic and covalent substances through the study of electrical conductivity.

3. Theoretical Foundation

The conductivity of a substance is carried by ions—charged particles formed by one or more atoms—excluding metals, whose electrical conduction is not considered in this experiment.

Ionic compounds do not carry current in the solid state, but they do when dissolved or fused, as their crystal lattice releases... Continue reading "Understanding Chemical Bonds and Electrical Conductivity" »

Le Chatelier's Principle

Changes in Concentration

When a quantity of a substance is added to an equilibrium system, it will move to the side where the substance is not present. If, however, we remove one of the substances, the equilibrium shifts to the side where it is located.

Changes in Pressure Affecting Volume

When the pressure is increased from the outside and the system decreases in volume, the equilibrium shifts in the direction where there is a smaller number of moles (or molecules) to counteract the external perturbation.

Changes in Temperature

An increase in temperature always favors the endothermic process, and a decrease favors the exothermic process. If the direct process is endothermic, a temperature increase leads to a higher value... Continue reading "Le Chatelier's Principle and Carbon Chemistry Properties" »

Workplace Safety and Emergency Protocols

1. Types of Fire

• Class A (Solids): Extinguished using water.
• Class B (Liquids): Extinguished with dry powder.
• Class C (Gases): Extinguished with dry powder or versatile dust.
• Class D (Metals): Extinguished with a special powder.
• Class E (Electrical Fires): Extinguished with carbon dioxide (CO2).

3. Fire (Combustion Requirements)

To produce fire, the following elements must align: fuel, combustion (oxygen), heat, and a chain reaction (the fire tetrahedron).

Emergency Management Levels

14. Minor Emergency

An emergency that is easily controlled using the resources available within the company.

15. Partial Emergency

Requires the action of human and material resources located within the building.

16. General Emergency

Requires... Continue reading "Workplace Safety Fundamentals and Emergency Response Protocols" »

Collision Theory

For a reaction to occur, the molecules of the reacting substances must collide. Any factor that increases the collision frequency of such collisions, or increases the probability that these collisions occur with appropriate orientation and possess sufficient energy, will increase the reaction speed.

Reaction Rate ($ ext{V}_{ ext{reaccion}}$): Number of collisions $\times$ time / Molecules of reagents.

Effective Collision

An effective collision requires:

• Appropriate orientation.
• Sufficient energy.

Activation Energy

The Activation Energy ($ ext{E}_{ ext{A}}$) corresponds to the maximum energy reached in the intermediate state of the system, known as the activated complex state. It is the energy needed to move from the reactant state... Continue reading "Chemical Reaction Kinetics and Theories Explained" »

Understanding Vapor Pressure and Colligative Properties

Colligative Properties and Vapor Pressure

Liquids are composed of molecules in constant motion. Upon reaching the surface, these molecules can acquire enough energy to transition from the liquid to the gaseous state (i.e., become vapor). If they retain sufficient energy, they remain in the gaseous state; otherwise, they return to the liquid state.

Defining Vapor Pressure

When equilibrium is established between a liquid and its vapor in an enclosed space, the pressure exerted by the vapor over the liquid has a specific value at a given temperature. This is known as vapor pressure.

Factors Affecting Vapor Pressure

• Temperature

  An increase in temperature enhances the kinetic energy of molecules,

Properties of Matter

Properties of matter help us describe and identify substances.

General Properties

These are properties common to all matter, such as mass and volume. They do not help distinguish one substance from another.

Characteristic or Intensive Properties

These properties are unique to a specific substance and do not depend on the amount of matter present. They are useful for identifying a substance. Examples include density and melting point.

Extensive Properties

These properties depend on the amount of matter present. Examples include mass and volume.

Fundamental Chemical Concepts

Relative Atomic Mass

The relative atomic mass of a chemical element is the ratio of the average mass of atoms of an element to one twelfth of the mass of an atom... Continue reading "Foundations of Chemical Principles" »

Proton: Positive electricity - 1.602 x 10^-19 electric charge and its mass is greater than 27 kg. 1.672 x 10^-27 kg. Electron: Electric negative charge (mass is approximately 0.000548 Daltons). Neutron: Neutral charge (mass is almost equal to that of the proton, 1.675 x 10^-27 kg).

Concept of Mole: A practical means to handle the large number of particles involved in a chemical reaction. If two quantities have the same number of atoms or molecules, their masses are in the same proportion as their respective atomic or molecular masses. The mole is the unit of the number of particles contained in an amount of substance equal to its molar mass. This number is called Avogadro's number (the number of atoms in 12 grams of Carbon-12). Atomic mass is expressed... Continue reading "Understanding Protons, Electrons, and Chemical Bonds" »

Preparation of Metals

Metals are materials obtained from minerals in rocks, extracted from open-pit or underground mines.

The deposit is rich in metal ore (the useful part) and other minerals and rocks (gangue or waste rock).

• Metallurgy: The set of industries responsible for the extraction and processing of metal ores.
• Steelmaking (Siderurgy): The metallurgical industry working with ferrous materials, ranging from the extraction of iron ore to its commercialization for manufacturing products.

Types of Metals

• Ferrous metals: The main component is iron (e.g., pure iron, steel, cast iron).
• Non-ferrous metals: Metallic materials that contain no iron or very little iron (e.g., copper, bronze, brass, zinc).

Ferrous Metals

They are currently the most commonly... Continue reading "Metal Processing: Preparation, Types, and Shaping Techniques" »

Hess's Law and Enthalpy Diagrams

Hess's Law: If a reaction occurs at several stages, whether real or theoretical, the total enthalpy change is equal to the sum of the enthalpies of reaction of these intermediate reactions.

An enthalpy diagram represents the energies at play in a chemical reaction using activated complex theory. According to this theory, when the reactants approach, there is an intermediate state of high energy and short duration, which is the activated complex.

In these diagrams, we can represent the activation energy, which is the energy needed for reactant molecules to absorb to form the activated complex. A slow reaction has a high activation energy, while a quick reaction will have a low activation energy.

Entropy and Molecular

What is an Inorganic Compound?

Inorganic compounds are substances formed by various chemical elements. Unlike organic compounds, the main component in inorganic compounds is not always carbon. Water is the most abundant inorganic compound. Almost all known elements can be involved in the formation of inorganic compounds.

History of Inorganic Chemistry

• The beginnings of inorganic chemistry trace back to the history of civilized man. Since the early metal ages, people have been devoted to understanding the minerals in deposits and how they react under certain conditions.
• Later, during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, significant knowledge was gained through the pursuit of a reaction that could lead to gold from other metals. This practice was known