Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Chemistry

Part I: Fundamental Chemistry Concepts

• Chemistry: The study of matter, its properties, and its changes; a branch of natural science.
• Organic vs. Inorganic: Organic chemistry focuses on carbon-based compounds, while inorganic chemistry covers all other chemical compounds.
• Avogadro's Number: The number of units in one mole of any substance, approximately 6.022 × 10²³.

Part II: Chemical Principles and Definitions

Hydrocarbons

Organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen, distinct from inorganic compounds.

Alkenes

Hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond.

Concentration

A measure of the quantity of solute present in a given volume of solution.

Groups of Elements

Vertical columns of elements in the periodic table.

Octet Rule

The... Continue reading "Essential Chemistry Concepts and Stoichiometry Principles" »

Stoichiometry and Fixed Ratios

Fixed Ratios in Building and Manufacturing

Describe an experience you’ve had making or building something where the amount of each ingredient or building block came in fixed ratios.

Building a model airplane is an example. For each model, there must be two wings and three wheels. In order for the model to look correct or work properly, there must be a certain, unvarying number of wings and wheels.

Direct Arithmetic Units in Chemical Problems

A chemical problem may be presented to you in units of moles, mass, or volume. Which one of these can be directly used in your arithmetic no matter what the conditions are?

Moles can be directly used. The number of molecules or moles is the basic unit used in solving chemical... Continue reading "Chemical Calculations and Gas Law Principles: Stoichiometry and Kinetic Theory" »

Stoichiometry, Yields and Reaction Types

Solution

Solution — This is obtained when one chemical becomes completely dissolved in another.

Theoretical Yield

Theoretical yield — If a chemist calculates the maximum amount of product that could be obtained in a chemical reaction, he or she is calculating the theoretical yield.

Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry — Terms used to designate the calculations of quantities of substances involved in chemical reactions.

Percent Yield

Percent yield — This is obtained by dividing the actual yield by the theoretical yield and multiplying by 100%.

Limiting Reactant

Limiting reactant — The reactant that is fully consumed during the reaction.

Practice Questions

1.1 — In the equation 6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O ... the mole ratio... Continue reading "Stoichiometry, Reaction Types, and Yield Calculations" »

Kinetic Theory of Matter

• Matter is made up of particles.
• These particles are constantly moving because they have kinetic energy.
• There are spaces between the particles.
• There are attractive forces between particles, and these become stronger as the particles move closer.
• All particles have energy. The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles.
• A change in phase may occur when the energy of the particles is changed.

Boyle's Law

The pressure of a fixed quantity of gas is inversely proportional to the volume it occupies, as long as the temperature remains constant. P₁ × V₁ = P₂ × V₂

Gay-Lussac's and Charles's Law

The volume of an enclosed sample of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, provided... Continue reading "Matter: Kinetic Theory, Properties, and Classifications" »

Scientific models used to explain why and how atoms form molecules:

• Lewis dot structure
• Valence bond theory

Valence bond theory describes a covalent bond as the overlap of half-filled atomic orbitals (each containing a single electron) that yield a pair of electrons shared between the two bonded atoms. According to valence bond theory, a covalent bond results when two conditions are met: (1) an orbital on one atom overlaps an orbital on a second atom and (2) the single electrons in each orbital combine to form an electron pair.

• Molecular orbital theory

model that describes the behavior of electrons delocalized throughout a molecule in terms of the combination of atomic wave functions. It describes the distribution of electrons in molecules in much... Continue reading "Atomic Models, Periodic Trends, and Chemical Bonding" »

IONIC: thet are solids at room temperatures and have medium to high meltin and boiling points. Ionic bond is strong because it is electrostatic. They are very hard. It is not eassy to scratch an ionic compound. They are fragile. Hitting them forces ions with the same signs together, and they repel and break the crystal. Most disolve well in water, water molecules may surround the ions,weakening their bonds and separating them from the crystal lattice. This is called solvation. They do not conduct electricity well in solid state but hey do in solution or liquid state. SODIUM CHLORIDE

Mixing and Measuring

Agitator

An agitator is a machine used for mixing liquids, typically with an electromagnet.

Beaker

A beaker is a cylindrical container made of glass that is very commonly used in the laboratory, mainly to prepare or heat substances.

Burette

A burette is used for decantation and for transferring and dispensing liquids or fluids.

Graduated Cylinder

A graduated cylinder is used to measure volumes of liquids.

Micropipettes

Micropipettes are used to measure and extract very small amounts of liquids from a solution.

Pipette

A pipette is used to accurately measure volumes of liquids.

Volumetric Flask

A volumetric flask is used to prepare solutions and to know the volume.

Heating and Support

Bunsen Burner

A Bunsen burner is used to heat chemical... Continue reading "Essential Lab Equipment: Uses and Functions" »

Chemistry Fundamentals

Physical Changes

Affect only physical properties like physical state. They do not alter the nature of the substance. Example: Frozen and liquid water have the same composition; nothing changes chemically.

Chemical Changes

Occur when there is a change in the composition of matter. Example: Paper converting into a gas (combustion).

Indicators of Chemical Change

• A gas is produced (bubbles are formed).
• There is a change in temperature due to heat exchange between the environment and reacting substances.
• A precipitate is formed (an insoluble solid that appears as a result of the reaction between solutions).
• The color changes.

Related Concepts

Heat: The interchange of thermal energy between objects or substances having different temperatures.... Continue reading "Fundamental Concepts in Chemistry" »

Distillation: Separating Liquids by Boiling Point

Distillation is a separation process for components of a mixture that have different boiling points. The mixture is heated until it reaches the lower boiling point. One of the substances then becomes vapor and can be separated. This vapor is cooled until it condenses and is collected in a vessel.

Crystallization: Forming Pure Solid Crystals

Crystallization is the process of forming solid crystals from a liquid solution, typically by evaporating the solvent. When all the liquid has evaporated, the solid crystals remain at the bottom of the vessel.

Paper Chromatography: Separating Organic Substances

Paper chromatography is used to separate several organic substances that travel through the chromatography... Continue reading "Chemical Separation Techniques and Mixture Classification" »

Colloids and Solutions

Colloids resist filtering, although some particles are retained in the filter. These particles can be detected by the scattering of light when it passes through the mixture; this property is called the Tyndall effect. Common examples of colloids include milk and certain juices.

In contrast, actual solutions contain particles with sizes similar to atoms or molecules (less than 1 nm). These cannot be filtered or decanted and do not exhibit the Tyndall effect.

Concentration and Solubility

The composition of a solution refers to the relative amount of solute in the mixture. Solutions have variable compositions, and their properties depend directly on these proportions. To describe a solution accurately, one must identify its... Continue reading "Understanding Colloids, Solutions, and Solubility" »