Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Biology

Core Concepts in Biotechnology and Genetics

Genetic Code

The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in messenger RNA (mRNA) sequences is translated into amino acid sequences during protein synthesis. It dictates which amino acids correspond to each codon, allowing them to join together in the correct position to form a protein.

Biotechnology

Biotechnology involves the use of living organisms, or parts of organisms, or modified products derived from them, to improve plants or animals, or to develop microorganisms for specific objectives.

Plasmids

Plasmids are circular DNA molecules, independent of the chromosomal DNA, that often carry genetic information useful to the host organism, typically found in bacteria and yeasts.

Bacteriophage

The Digestive System: Functions and Anatomy

The digestive system is responsible for several key functions:

• Food intake: Consuming food.
• Nutrient preparation: Breaking down nutrients through mechanical and chemical digestion.
• Absorption: Absorbing nutrients into surrounding tissues.
• Elimination: Eliminating undigested waste.

Components of the Digestive System

The digestive system consists of the following organs:

• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Intestines:
  • Duodenum
  • Jejunum
  • Ileum
  • Large Intestine (Cecum, Appendix, Ascending Colon, Transverse Colon, Descending Colon, Sigmoid Colon, Rectum, Anal Canal, Anus)

The entire system is lined with the peritoneum, a serous membrane.

Accessory Glands

Several accessory glands aid in digestion:

• Minor and major salivary glands

Endocrine System Fundamentals

What is Endocrinology?

Endocrinology is the science studying the function and pathology of the ductless or endocrine glands, whose secretions are called hormones.

Components of the Endocrine System

The endocrine system is a control system responsible for various bodily functions. It maintains the body's internal environment, participates in growth, sexual differentiation, and reproduction, and intervenes in reactions. Closely related chemically with the nervous system, the endocrine system functions in an integrated way. Endocrine interrelations between glands are most often governed by the hypothalamic-pituitary axis.

The main endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, endocrine pancreas, parathyroid... Continue reading "Endocrine System and Hormone Function" »

Unit 5: Cell Nutrition

All living beings need food used as follows:

• For growth: it provides the substances needed for making new cells and tissues.
• As a source of energy: required for the chemical reactions which take place in living organisms to keep them alive.
• For replacement: of worn and damaged tissues, for example, red blood cells that break down each day and to replace the skin which is worn away and to repair wounds.

Nutrition can be defined as obtaining organic substances and mineral ions from which organisms obtain their energy and their raw materials for growth and tissue repair. Several systems are involved in cell nutrition: this process is carried out by organ systems which working together allow cells to obtain matter and energy.

• Digestive

DNA, Genetic Code, and Translation

Classical genetics is devoted to studying the mechanisms of heredity. In the 1930s, questions were raised, and geneticists began to explore the nature of the gene. Even earlier, there were no doubts about the existence of genes.

The Discovery of DNA Structure

The first chemical analysis of genetic material showed that the eukaryotic chromosome consists of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and proteins. Both DNA and proteins were good candidates for the molecule that carries the genetic material.

In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick gathered data from different studies on DNA. They postulated a model for DNA structure and were able to deduce that DNA is a double helix, an intertwined and long structure. An essential... Continue reading "DNA Structure, Replication, and Genetic Code Translation" »

The Rhinencephalon and Limbic System

The rhinencephalon is a structure related to the sense of smell. In humans, it has evolved into an area responsible for instinctive motor activity, autonomic and visceral functions, behavior, emotions, and memory. It forms the beginning of the limbic circuitry, a complex formation that occupies the inner surface of the cerebral hemispheres, with its end at the cingulum.

Klüver-Bucy Syndrome

First described in 1930, Klüver-Bucy syndrome results from a bilateral temporal lobectomy. Its symptoms include:

• Visual agnosia
• Hyperorality
• Hyperphagia
• Hypersexuality
• Flattening of emotions (emotional blunting)

MacLean's Theory on the Limbic System

MacLean's theory suggests that the limbic system is primarily related to the... Continue reading "Functions of the Rhinencephalon, Amygdala, and Hypothalamus" »

Invertebrate Excretory Organs: Structure and Function

Invertebrates utilize various specialized organs to manage waste and maintain osmotic balance:

• Protonephridia

  Found in small animals like Platyhelminths (flatworms) and Nematodes. These consist of a series of closed, branched tubes. The inner ends terminate in ciliated cells (flame cells or solenocytes) that capture waste products. Excretory fluid circulates inside the tube, and once excess water is reabsorbed, the final product is eliminated through excretory pores.

• Metanephridia

  Found in Annelids and Mollusks. These are tubes open at both ends. The internal opening, called the nephrostome, is funnel-shaped, ciliated, and opens into the coelom (general body cavity). The other end opens to the

Health and Disease: A Comprehensive Overview

Health Encompasses: Sickness absence and well-being in physical, mental, emotional, social, spiritual, sexual, and environmental aspects.

Risk Factors for Health

• Food rich in fat and/or sugar
• Tobacco and/or drug use
• Lack of hygiene
• Stress

International Sanitary Conference (Paris, 1851)

Accomplishments:

• Development of public health policies with laws governing food handling and potable water.
• Creation of the National Institute of Health.
• Methods for preventative health planning, including vaccination and infection control.
• Improved diagnostic techniques.
• Drug development.
• Promotion of better nutritional habits for a healthy life.

Infectious Diseases

Infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms and are transmitted... Continue reading "Health and Disease: Factors, Prevention, and Immunity" »

Understanding Myiasis: Larval Infestations

General Overview of Myiasis

Larvae develop and, upon reaching the third stage, can be released through a sneeze. These infestations can cause significant economic losses in livestock. At the human level, sanitary issues often occur in people in contact with cattle. Larvae released onto the eyes can cause external ocular myiasis. While often benign, it is very annoying because the larvae produce irritation at the level of the conjunctiva and cornea.

Hypodermatidae Family: Cattle Grubs

The Hypodermatidae family includes various Hypoderma genera, some with significant health implications, such as Hypoderma bovis (major cattle grub) and Hypoderma lineatum (minor cattle grub).

Life Cycle of Hypodermatidae

Adults,... Continue reading "Myiasis: Hypodermatidae and Gasterophilidae Infestations" »

Asexual Reproduction in Cormophytes

Asexual reproduction in cormophytes involves specific vegetative organs such as stolons, rhizomes, tubers, and bulbs.

• Runners: These are side branches emerging from the base of the stems with horizontal growth. Roots emit buds, giving rise to new independent individuals.
• Rhizomes: Underground stems that grow horizontally in the soil and accumulate reserve substances. Ground stems can emerge from buds, eventually taking root and separating from the main rhizome.
• Tubers: Very enlarged underground stems that store food. They can be separated from the main plant to form separate plants.
• Bulbs: Underground stems that are more or less spherical, with fleshy, layered storage. Smaller bulbs are often formed with buds