Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Biology

Types of Mutations

Point Mutations

A change in a single nucleotide.

• Substitution: One nucleotide is incorrectly added in place of the correct complementary nucleotide.
• Insertion: One or more extra nucleotides are added to the growing DNA strand; this can lead to a frameshift.
• Deletion: One or more nucleotides are eliminated from the growing DNA strand; this can lead to a frameshift.

Chromosome Mutations

Changes in the structure or number of chromosomes.

Structural Mutations

These are due to two simultaneous breakages in nuclear chromosomes. This can cause:

• Deletion: The loss of a chromosomal segment.
• Duplication: A region of the chromosome is repeated.
• Inversion: The change in direction of the chromosomal segment.
• Translocation: A segment splits off from

Systemic: Series of Arteries and Veins

A systemic circulation consists of a series of arteries that deliver oxygenated blood to capillary beds within body tissues, and a set of veins that return deoxygenated blood back to the heart.

Coronary: Supplying the Heart

The coronary circulation is similar to the systemic circulation, but its arteries, capillary beds, and veins supply and drain only the heart.

Pulmonary: Blood Flow to the Lungs

The pulmonary circulation features a set of arteries that deliver deoxygenated blood to the capillary beds of the lungs, and a set of veins that return oxygenated blood to the heart.

Blood Flow into the Heart

Blood enters the heart through two large veins, the inferior and superior vena cava, emptying oxygen-poor blood... Continue reading "Understanding the Circulatory System: Arteries, Veins, and Blood Flow" »

Biology and Genetics Practice Questions

78. Sequence of Events in Translation

Which of the following options most accurately lists the sequence of events in translation?

C) codon recognition → peptide bond formation → translocation → termination

79. Definition of Mutation

Any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA is called

A) a mutation.

80. HIV Virus Type

What kind of virus is HIV?

C) a retrovirus

81. HIV Enzyme for DNA Synthesis

Which of the following enzymes does HIV use to synthesize DNA on an RNA template?

D) reverse transcriptase

82. Griffith's Experiment and DNA Transfer

In the 1920s, Frederick Griffith conducted an experiment in which he mixed the dead cells of a bacterial strain that can cause pneumonia with live cells of a bacterial strain... Continue reading "Biology Genetics Practice Questions" »

Trigeminal Nerve

The trigeminal nerve controls masticatory muscles. Its sensory fibers receive sensitivity from the face, orbit, nasal cavity, and oral cavity. The trigeminal ganglion (semilunar ganglion/gasserian ganglion) is located anterosuperior to the petrous portion of the temporal bone.

V1 (Ophthalmic Nerve)

V1 is sensory and supplies the front region of the nose, upper eyelid, mucous membranes of the frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid sinuses, the upper part of the nasal cavity, and the eyeball. V1 has three terminal branches: nasal, frontal, and lacrimal.

Nasal Nerve

• Collateral branches: long ciliary nerve (supplies the eyeball), posterior ethmoidal nerve (supplies the sphenoid sinus, ethmoid cells, and upper portion of the nasal cavity).
• Terminal

Surgery

Early & Later Complications of CABG and Valve Replacement/Repair

Radical & Palliative CHD: 1 paper

Large Patch:

• Heart Surgery Complications (2 W CABG + Valves)
• Aortic Aneurysm Surgery
• Fallot
• Ind Pericardial Biopsy Drainage
• Aortic Coarctation
• Cardiac Tumors
• Congenital Heart Disease
• Cardiac Pulmonary Bypass
• Mitral Regurgitation Surgery

Vascular:

Digesting Food

The Digestive Tract

The digestive tract is a long tube that extends from the mouth to the anus. Digestion begins in the mouth with chewing, breaking down food into smaller pieces for easier enzyme action.

Salivary glands secrete saliva containing enzymes like salivary amylase (begins carbohydrate digestion) and salivary lipase (begins fat digestion).

The Stomach

This mixture, called a bolus, is swallowed and travels down the esophagus to the stomach, passing through the lower esophageal sphincter. In the stomach, the bolus mixes with hydrochloric acid (HCl), pepsin (digests proteins), and gastric lipase (continues fat digestion). This creates a liquid called chyme, which exits the stomach through the pyloric sphincter to the duodenum... Continue reading "Digestive System: Process and Organs Explained" »

Biology Questions and Answers

Taxonomy and Evolution

1. Which of the following taxonomic categories contains all the others listed here? Class

2. Animals that possess homologous structures probably ___. evolved from the same ancestor

3. By definition, a clade is ___. monophyletic

Prokaryotes

4. What is the function of fimbriae? They are used to attach the cell to its substrate or to other prokaryotes.

5. Genes for the resistance of antibiotics are usually located _________. on plasmids

6. Which statement is true about obligate anaerobes? They are poisoned by O₂

7. The prokaryotic organisms most likely to be found living in salt ponds are the _____. halophiles

Ecology and Symbiosis

8. An ecological relationship between organisms of different species that

Nerve Impulse Transmission Across a Synapse

The nerve impulse which has been transmitted along the membrane of the transmitter neuron reaches the end of its axon. At the end of the axon, the arrival of the nerve impulse causes neurotransmitters to be released into the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters bind to the membrane of the receptor neuron and generate a new nerve impulse. The new nerve impulse is transmitted along the membrane to the axon, where the whole process is repeated.

The Autonomic Peripheral Nervous System

The autonomic PNS consists of motor nerves which regulate the activity of the internal organs and control involuntary movements. The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic... Continue reading "Understanding Nerve Impulse Transmission and the Endocrine System" »

Human Reproduction

-Human reproduction is sexual and has two characteristics:

• The new individual is formed from a single cell, called a zygote.
• A zygote originates from the union (fertilisation) of two gametes or sex cells.

-Humans have two kinds of gametes: sperm and ova. Men produce sperm and women produce ova.

Puberty

Puberty begins in men with the first ejaculation (spermarche) and in women when the first menstruation takes place (menarche). Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Puberty lasts around 3 to 4 years; Girls-> 10-13 years old, boys-> 12-14 years old.

Adolescence

During this stage many physical and psychological changes occur. These prepare the individual to develop their sexuality and makes them capable... Continue reading "Human Reproduction: Stages and Male Reproductive System" »

Key Characteristics of the Animal Kingdom

• Multicellular with differentiated tissues and organs
• Eukaryotic cells
• Heterotrophic: Feed on other living things
• Motile: Capable of active movement
• Sensitive to environmental changes
• Possess an internal or external skeleton
• Found in aquatic and terrestrial environments

Invertebrates and Vertebrates

• Invertebrates: Do not possess a spinal column (e.g., butterflies, sea urchins).
• Vertebrates: Possess a spinal column (e.g., cats, frogs).

Types of Body Symmetry

• Radial Symmetry: Body parts arranged around a central axis (e.g., starfish).
• Bilateral Symmetry: Body can be divided into two mirror-image halves (e.g., insects, vertebrates).

Animal Feeding Strategies

Dietary Classifications:

• Carnivores
• Herbivores
• Omnivores

Specific