Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Arts and Humanities

The Middle Ages: A Transitional Era

The Middle Ages is the historical period of Western civilization between the 5th century and the 15th century. Conventionally, its start lies in the fall of the Western Roman Empire, ending with the discovery of America in 1492 or the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. This latter date has the advantage of coinciding with the invention of printing (the Gutenberg Bible) and the end of the Hundred Years' War. Although there are some examples of prior use, the medieval concept was born as the second age of the traditional division of historical time. This is attributed to Christopher Cellarius, who considered it an intermediate time with little value in itself, situated between Ancient history—identified... Continue reading "Evolution of the Middle Ages and Spanish Golden Age" »

Understanding News Reports

The news: It is a text issued on radio, television, or in the press that provides information on recent events. News is the most common genre in the media and, in addition to verbal text, may contain photographs, drawings, or diagrams.

There are different types of news depending on the subject and nature. It is also categorized by length; there are short forms, including wedges, which are secondary news items.

Information is organized according to the principle of relevance: the fundamental facts are located in a prominent position, moving from general information to specific details.

Structure of a News Report

• Headline: Expresses the theme or main fact. It is located in the first position and highlighted in bold. The

Core Concepts of Visual Communication

Elements of Communication

• Sender: The person, group, or object that emits a message.
• Receiver: The entity that receives the message.
• Message: The content perceived by our senses.
• Code: A structured set of signs used to understand the message.
• Channel: The medium that enables transmission (e.g., photography, television, poster).
• Context/Referent: The aim or subject matter necessary to achieve communication.

Functions of the Image

• Informative: Focuses on transmitting information. For example, red lights indicating danger and prohibiting crossing.
• Expressive: Causes feelings to surface. Its purpose lies not in the visual content itself, but in the emotions it produces in the viewer.
• Aesthetic: Centers its message on

Ferdinand de Saussure: Language as a System

For Saussure, language is defined by two essential features that form the institution: it is shaped by rules that are a) general (beyond individual control) and b) coercive (limiting possibilities in interactive behavior). From a social perspective, language is an institution; from a formal approach, it is a system.

Saussure utilized the notion of a system in the sense of a mathematical structure: a set of elements whose defining features are relational, meaning their existence and significance are determined by their relations with other elements within the set.

Synchronic vs. Diachronic Linguistics

Language must be differentiated by its current state versus the states that preceded it; we must distinguish... Continue reading "Saussure and Chomsky: Foundations of Modern Linguistics" »

Dadaism: The Anti-Art Movement

Dadaism emerged in Zurich in 1916. Chronologically, it appeared after Futurism.

Dadaism sought to be essentially anti-art and anti-literature. It is an artistic movement that denies art itself, assuming a mocking and defiant attitude towards all established systems.

At that time, the war was seen as a contradictory event to the rationalism upon which social progress was based. Consequently, there were two choices.

One possibility was to consider war as a misstep—a deviation from rational history. The other possibility considered it a false orientation of civilization, viewing war as a result of those scientific and technological processes. In this case, it was necessary to deny all past history and any future projects,... Continue reading "Dadaism and Futurism: Radical Shifts in Modern Art" »

The State

The State is a political concept referring to a sovereign and coercive social organization, consisting of a set of involuntary institutions that possess the power to regulate national life within a particular territory.

Nation

The term nation has two primary meanings:

• Political Nation: Within the legal-political sphere, this is the political subject where the constituent sovereignty of a State resides.
• Cultural Nation: A more subjective and ambiguous concept, it can be broadly defined as a human community sharing certain common cultural features, which fosters an ethical-political sense.

Broadly speaking, nation is used with various meanings, including State, country, territory, population, ethnicity, or people.

Territory

Territory (from... Continue reading "Key Political and Social Concepts Defined" »

Key Concepts in Futurology and Prospective Studies

4. Roy Amara's Goals for Future Research

According to Roy Amara, future research has diverse goals. Mention two of them.

• Identify and analyze alternative futures.
• Identify key precursor areas for future individuals.

5. Charles Francois' Definition of the Future

How does Charles Francois define the future?

As the dimension in which the imagination can build contradictory structures.

6. Decouflé's Representation of the Future

How does Decouflé represent and express the future?

Decouflé expresses the future in three ways:

• As a Destination: Expressed as Prophecy and Divination.
• As Porvenir (The Future to Come): Expressed as Utopian and Science Fiction.
• As Devenir (Becoming): Expressed as Futurology and Outlook

Journalistic Genres: Information, Opinion, and Hybrid Forms

Information Genres in Journalism

These genres aim to transmit information as objectively as possible. Major sub-genres usually included in this group are:

• The News

  An objective account of an event where no opinion of the journalist is involved. It is a short and concise text that describes general information of interest. The text type is narrative-expository. News answers who, where, when, how, and why. Its structure is as follows:

  1. Head: A phrase that emphasizes the aspect of the story intended to attract attention.
  2. Input or Lead: A paragraph that encapsulates the most important news.
  3. Body: Several paragraphs that develop and complete the entry information. Its structure, often an inverted

Understanding Narrative Texts

A narrative text is a type of writing that includes both real and imagined events.

Narrative Pacing and Sequences

A narrative story presents different paces according to the sequence-chaining procedures used:

• Condensation: Events are presented in a condensed way, often resorting to narrative ellipsis.
• Expansion: The story is delayed or even paused to include additional elements to the action, such as descriptions.

External and Internal Structure

In a narrative, we distinguish between the external structure (chapters, parts, treatises) and the internal structure.

The Narrator and Point of View

Third-Person Narrator

• Omniscient (all-knowing): Omniscience supports different degrees of involvement; at times, it includes speeches

René Descartes: Historical & Philosophical Foundations

The 17th Century: A Turbulent Era

The life of René Descartes unfolded almost entirely within the seventeenth century. This era can be broadly characterized by widespread wars, devastating plagues, and significant economic and demographic crises.

Political Landscape

Politically, the seventeenth century was marked by the triumph of absolute monarchy, with Spain and France serving as prime examples. The most significant conflict was the Thirty Years' War, fueled by the rivalry between Catholics and Protestants. Descartes himself participated in this war.

Social Dynamics

Socially, the nobility began to lose prominence to the rising commercial bourgeoisie during this period.

Economic Challenges

Economically,... Continue reading "René Descartes: 17th Century Context & Philosophical Impact" »