William of Ockham: Philosophy of Nominalism and Faith

William of Ockham: Reason, Faith, and Nominalism

Radical Separation of Reason and Faith

Ockham defends the radical separation between reason and faith. These powers pertain to different areas of knowledge and information sources. Reason would take on the observable, while faith would deal with that which is not observable. The mission of philosophy is not to face theological problems, as reason cannot say anything beyond its own scope. With this separation, Ockham distances himself from much of the philosophical tradition, causing a resurgence of the experimental sciences.

Intuitive Knowledge

Ockham maintains that knowledge is intuitive. When you have something in front of you, the understanding retains an imprint, like a photograph, which allows the mind to form a proposition. The need for the object to be present ensures security, and besides, the knowledge is direct and immediate; there are no intermediaries between abstraction and theoretical knowledge.

Ockham's Razor and the Principle of Economy

The famous "razor" is called Ockham's. It states that to explain something, one should choose the simplest explanation. It is also called the principle of economy: "Do not multiply entities without sufficient necessity." This means that one should not add unnecessary elements to explain something if it can be explained with fewer elements.

Nominalism and the Problem of Universals

Nominalism is a response to the medieval problem of universals. There are three solutions to this problem:

• Exaggerated realism affirms that universals exist as real, independent beings.
• Moderate realism states that universals do not exist as separate things, but they may exist within individual things.
• Nominalism, which Ockham defends, states that universals are not real in the sense of existing independently; they only exist in the mind.

Ockham argues that if God were not omnipotent, creation could not exist, because to create an individual, there would first have to be a universal. Similarly, if God wanted to annihilate a whole man, He would also have to annihilate the universal common to all men, effectively killing all men. Ockham argues that universals are constructions made from the intelligence based on similarities observed in individual and concrete things. Universals are not substances that may exist outside the mind. If fundamental substance beings exist, then there are no universals.

Universals as Signs

Universals are signs, and a sign is anything that, once known, directly leads to the knowledge of something else. Ockham distinguishes between terms of first intention and second intention. The first concerns things about reality, and the second concerns things of the mind. The main features of the universal are supposition and signification. Signification is doing the function of a sign. Supposition means being able to take the place of that to which it leads. Meaning is not the same as supposing. A single term can mean but not suppose, because it needs at least another term in relation within a proposition.

Types of Supposition

Ockham distinguishes three types of supposition: personal, simple, and material. Universals are classified as:

• Natural or concepts: There is a natural relationship of signification between the universal and the particular (e.g., smoke and fire, groaning and pain).
• Conventional or artificial: These are words that set universals linguistically. They can be spoken or written.

Voluntarism

Ockham's voluntarism is based on that of Duns Scotus. It exalts divine omnipotence and God's freedom. God can freely do what He wants, and both natural and moral laws are contingent upon God.