Understanding Scientific Methods

Scientific Methods

Scientific methods provide frameworks for investigation and understanding.

Deductive Method

This method moves from general statements to particular statements. From general judgments or definitions (premises), individual conclusions are deduced that are the necessary consequence of the first. The consistency and validity of this method are unquestionable. The deductive method is characteristic of formal sciences, although in empirical sciences it is also used in the initial part of the investigation.

Inductive Method

The inductive method starts from the particular to formulate a general conclusion. Scientists, after observing that a property or event is repeated in many individual cases, conclude that such a property belongs to all individuals of the same type. It provides principles or laws applicable to all similar events.

Problems with Induction

• It is questionable whether the scientific procedure begins with neutral observation. The concept of "observation" is problematic because in modern science what we call "observation" is often interfered with by technology.
• It is also questionable the validity or reliability of the principles reached by induction. No matter how many cases we have checked, no matter how well selected, nothing assures us that all other possible cases are of the same type, and even less that future cases will also follow the same pattern.

Hypothetical-Deductive Method

It is a combination of the two previous methods, combining the reference to empirical data from induction with the generality and consistency of deduction.

1) Define the Problem

This method starts from the detection of a disconcerting or problematic fact – an event that cannot be explained by current theories, or is even contradictory to some principles of our current theories.

2) Formulate a Hypothesis

A possible explanation is proposed, but it must be coherent and consistent with the scientific attitude. The proposed explanation must therefore be rigorous, neutral, and verifiable.

3) Deduce Consequences

Using the deductive method, the consequences of the hypothesis, if true, are deduced.

4) Validate the Hypothesis

This process checks whether or not our hypothesis aligns with the expected consequences. Here it is necessary to resort to empirical observation and repeated experimentation.

5) Confirm or Refute Hypothesis

In this step, two situations may occur:

• Refutation: A hypothesis is refuted when expected consequences are not achieved.
• Confirmation: A hypothesis is confirmed when expected consequences are achieved.