Understanding Scientific Inquiry: Methods and Classifications

The Nature of Science

Science is a way of knowledge derived from empirical facts. It aims to formulate laws and theories with objectivity. Rigor and precision in formulation, preferably mathematical, are its characteristic features, contrasting with subjective reality. It operates on the assumption of the constancy of events.

Types of Sciences

Sciences can be broadly categorized into the following types:

• Formal Sciences

  These include logic and mathematics. Their claims are universal and necessary, representing a priori knowledge which is independent of experience. The criterion of truth for formal sciences is consistency, and their primary method is deduction. Deduction starts from general principles and proceeds in a necessary way to a particular conclusion.

• Empirical Sciences

  This category encompasses fields like physics and biology. Their statements are generalizations derived from experience, and thus are neither universal nor strictly necessary, representing a posteriori knowledge formed from observed facts. The criterion of truth is the assertion of facts and their correspondence to reality. The method employed is typically the hypothetical-deductive method.

• Social Sciences

  Examples include psychology and history. Their claims are empirical, focusing on human acts, which are often complex and unpredictable. The criterion of truth involves understanding and correspondence. The method frequently used in social sciences is hermeneutics, which involves the interpretation of reality.

The Hypothetico-Deductive Method

The hypothetico-deductive method is an inductive procedure, a generalization of experience. It begins by formulating hypotheses or conjectures about events. It is deductive because, to test these hypotheses, it is necessary to deduce simpler, testable statements from them.

Elements of the Hypothetico-Deductive Method

1. Problem Identification

   Scientific inquiry does not begin with random observation. Instead, a scientist identifies a specific problem and seeks to solve it.

2. Hypothesis Formulation

   From observations, a hypothesis is formulated. A hypothesis is a proposed explanation whose truth is unknown and must be investigated; it is a proposal based on prior investigation.

3. Derivation of Testable Consequences

   Using logic and mathematics, testable consequences are derived from the hypothesis.

4. Experimentation and Variable Control

   An experiment should not begin until it is clear that all potential outcomes will be meaningful. The process relies on understanding all variables. To control or equalize variables, one must find ways to manage them. If all variables are controlled, the hypothesis is tested. It can be partially confirmed or completely rejected.

5. Replication

   Replication of the experiment is almost always performed to ensure reliability.

6. Conclusion and Law Formulation

   An experiment is considered demonstrated when a hypothesis is established and becomes a scientific law. If unproven, it helps build a new hypothesis for further investigation.