Understanding Science: Methods, Classification, and Limits

From Cosmology to Science

Early questions about the order of the universe led to the development of cosmogonies. When the existence of principles or laws explaining the regularity of events was sought, the first science of the universe, or cosmology, emerged. Cosmology is the part of philosophy that studies the physical world, providing a general picture through critical reflection. One of the initial key questions concerned the relationship between reason, senses, and observation techniques. With the rise of the scientific method, cosmology was gradually replaced by empirical science.

Defining Science

Science is a human activity that generates a systematic and organized body of knowledge using laws and general principles. However, not all disciplines fully satisfy this requirement, leading to the significant philosophical problem of demarcation: defining what constitutes science. Key characteristics of science include empirical testing against reality and precision in its formulations.

Classification of Scientific Disciplines

Sciences are generally classified according to their object of study and the methods used:

• Formal Sciences: These do not refer to sense-observable objects or provide direct information about the world (e.g., logic, mathematics). Their statements are universal and necessary, based on logical consistency and coherence. The primary method is deduction.
• Empirical Sciences: These start from the observation of facts and provide information about the world (e.g., physics, biology). Their findings are generalizations from experience and are not strictly universal or necessary. The primary method is the hypothetico-deductive method. Truth is determined by the correspondence between statements and reality.
• Social Sciences: A particular group within the empirical sciences (e.g., sociology, history). They study human actions and social facts. They often have a lower capacity for generalization and prediction compared to natural sciences, and face challenges regarding objectivity. They frequently seek understanding (Verstehen) and meaning, rather than just causal explanation. A key method is hermeneutics.

The Scientific Method

The Hypothetico-Deductive Approach

The scientific method is often described as hypothetico-deductive. It is hypothetical because it begins with proposing hypotheses about events, and deductive because it requires deducing testable consequences from these hypotheses to verify them against empirical evidence.

Steps of the Method

1. Observation: Careful observation of facts and identification of relevant aspects of a phenomenon, often expressed through protocol statements.
2. Hypothesis Formulation: Developing a tentative explanation (hypothesis) based on observations, which guides the investigation.
3. Deduction of Consequences: Logically deducing specific, testable consequences from the hypothesis, often using mathematical reasoning.
4. Experimental Testing: Conducting experiments or systematic observations to test the deduced consequences against reality.
5. Evaluation: Critically evaluating the results. Many favorable results provide inductive support, making the hypothesis plausible. However, a single contrary result (falsification) can invalidate the hypothesis (in its current form).
6. Law Formulation: If a hypothesis is repeatedly confirmed and withstands falsification attempts, it may be elevated to the status of a scientific law, allowing for predictions.
7. Theory Building: Articulating confirmed laws into a broader, coherent theoretical framework.

Limitations and Philosophy of Science

Scientific knowledge is inherently limited, influenced by its methodology and context:

• Falsifiability (Karl Popper): A core principle stating that a statement or theory is only scientific if it can be empirically falsified (proven wrong). This emphasizes the provisional nature of scientific knowledge – a hypothesis is considered valid only until demonstrated false. Scientific rigor involves actively seeking contradictions to refine understanding. This stands against dogmatism.
• Empirical Basis (Humean Influence): Science is generally limited to phenomena that can be experienced or observed. We cannot scientifically know that for which no empirical evidence can be obtained.
• Socio-Historical Context (Thomas Kuhn): Science is subject to social and psychological factors within the scientific community and the prevailing mindset of an era. Kuhn highlighted the sociological dimension, arguing that major scientific changes often occur as revolutionary paradigm shifts, not just due to new data but also changes in worldview.
• Methodological Debates (Paul Feyerabend): Some philosophers, like Feyerabend, argue that science has been overly constrained by rigid methodological rules. He advocated for a form of "methodological anarchism," suggesting that progress sometimes requires breaking established norms.
• Ethical Considerations: Science operates within an ethical framework. This includes a commitment to truth, considering the social priorities and impacts of research programs, and addressing ecological responsibilities.