Understanding the Role of Rulers in Harappan Society

1. Discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harappan society. Ans: Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers and that everybody enjoyed equal status. Others feel there was no single ruler but several.
There are indications of extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artifacts, as evident in pottery, seals, weights, and bricks. Notably, bricks, though obviously not produced in any single center, were of a uniform ratio throughout the region, from Jammu to Gujarat.
Under the guidance and supervision of the rulers, plans and layouts of the city were prepared. Big buildings, palaces, forts, tanks, wells, canals, and granaries were constructed.
Roads, lanes, and drains were also constructed, and cleanliness was maintained under the overall supervision of the ruler. The ruler might have taken an interest in the economy of the state or city-states. He used to inspire farmers to increase agricultural production.
He motivated craftsmen to promote different handicrafts. Internal as well as external trade was promoted by the ruler. He issued commonly accepted coins, seals, weights, and measurements. During natural calamities such as floods, earthquakes, and epidemics, the ruler provided grains and other food items to the affected people.
He played an active role in defending cities or states from foreign attacks.

2. How can you say that the Harappan culture was an urban one? Ans: We can say that the Harappan culture was urban due to the following reasons:
• The cities were well-planned and thickly populated.
• The roads were straight and wide.
• The houses were made of burnt bricks and contained more than one storey.
• Every house had a well and a bathroom.
• The drainage system was excellent, with house drains emptying into street drains.
• The citadel of Harappa had public buildings.
• Lothal was a dockyard and an important trading center.
• After the decline of the Harappan culture, town planning was forgotten, and there was an absence of city life for about a thousand years.

3. Write a note on the agricultural technology of Harappans. Ans: Agriculture was the chief occupation of the Harappans. The prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grains. However, it is more difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural practices. Archaeologists have found evidence of ploughed fields at Kalibangan. Representations on seals and terracotta sculptures indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing. Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and Banawali. The fields had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together. Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required for agriculture. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan. It is also likely that water drawn from wells was used for irrigation. Additionally, water reservoirs found in Dholavira may have been used to store water for agriculture.

4. List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilization and discuss how these might have been obtained. Ans: The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red color), jasper, crystal, quartz, and steatite; metals like copper, bronze, and gold; and shell, faience, and terracotta or burnt clay.
1. They established settlements such as Nageshwar, Shortughai, and Balakot.
2. They might have sent expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and South India (for gold).