Understanding Protons, Electrons, and Chemical Bonds

Proton: Positive electricity - 1.602 x 10^-19 electric charge and its mass is greater than 27 kg. 1.672 x 10^-27 kg. Electron: Electric negative charge (mass is approximately 0.000548 Daltons). Neutron: Neutral charge (mass is almost equal to that of the proton, 1.675 x 10^-27 kg).

Concept of Mole: A practical means to handle the large number of particles involved in a chemical reaction. If two quantities have the same number of atoms or molecules, their masses are in the same proportion as their respective atomic or molecular masses. The mole is the unit of the number of particles contained in an amount of substance equal to its molar mass. This number is called Avogadro's number (the number of atoms in 12 grams of Carbon-12). Atomic mass is expressed in grams per mole (g/mol), which indicates that it contains the same number of particles as in 12 g of Carbon-12.

Concept of Orbital and Quantum Numbers: The limited region or space where the probability of finding an electron is represented by closed surfaces. Typically, 95% to 99% of the time, the energy is determined by parameters: n (principal quantum number) takes values 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., representing the actual volume of the electron cloud. l (azimuthal quantum number) takes integer values from 0 to n-1, representing the shape of the region where the electron moves (s, p, d, f). m (magnetic quantum number) takes values from -l to +l, determining the orientation of an orbital. Spin: A particular electron rotates around itself like a magnet; this behavior is called spin, which can have two values: +1/2 or -1/2.

Ionic Bonds: Metals have few electrons in their outer level and tend to lose them to achieve a stable state. Ionization energy is very low. In contrast, almost complete metals do not have electrons in their outer level and tend to capture electrons to complete their outer shell. When an element has low ionization energy, it can interact with one that has a high electron affinity, resulting in the formation of ions (cations or anions).

Covalent Bond: Nonmetals need to capture electrons to achieve a more stable structure. If they are not in the presence of atoms that desire to gain electrons from a metal, they can achieve stability by sharing electrons with other nonmetals. According to Lewis theory, when two atoms share electrons, they form a covalent bond. For two atoms to form a covalent bond, each must have an unpaired electron in their valence orbitals. Additionally, the spins of the two electrons must be opposite. A covalent bond is formed when the two atoms approach each other, allowing their orbitals to overlap, creating a common region called the covalent bond. The number of layers formed depends on the electrons involved (e.g., the molecule of H₂).