Understanding Marxism, Nihilism, Phenomenology, and Existentialism

Marxism

Marxism is a philosophy with a close relationship to science. Unlike speculative philosophies following the Platonic tradition, it is politically implemented. It is also a materialist philosophy, a dialectical materialism, which conceives matter not as inert and determined by mechanical laws, but as something dynamic and evolving, with its own internal contradictions as the driving force. Founded by Karl Marx, its study concerns the historical evolution of human societies, emphasizing historical materialism, which focuses on the various modes of production societies use to create their material existence. Historical development is linked to the ideologies and policies of socialism and communism. Its influence on the Frankfurt School (Adorno, Horkheimer) is especially important.

Nihilism

Nihilism is a term used to describe the denial of any doctrine or value considered important. Nietzsche used this term to diagnose Western culture, claiming that all its values (truth, virtue) are false values that negate life. When these values collapse, nihilism arises in society. Heidegger took up Nietzsche's theme of nihilism to address the destruction of Western metaphysics. Other authors, such as Georges Bataille and E.M. Cioran, have expressed nihilistic attitudes, developing the idea of decomposition.

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is a philosophical movement initiated by Husserl in the early twentieth century as a reaction to historicism and vitalism. It aimed to transform philosophy into a rigorous science, providing rational knowledge of universal and necessary truths. It aims to describe the structures of experience as they present themselves in consciousness, without recourse to theories or assumptions from other disciplines, such as the natural sciences.

To achieve this, the phenomenological method is proposed, which allows one to grasp the essence of phenomena by progressively eliminating presuppositions. This is achieved through:

1. Epoché (or philosophical reduction): Refraining from judging objects based on pre-existing philosophical doctrines.
2. Eidetic reduction: Placing everything individual and existential in brackets, focusing on the essence revealed through empirical intuition.

The phenomenological method has significantly influenced the development of later philosophical movements, including existentialism, value theory, and studies in diverse fields such as religion and psychology.

Existentialism

Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emerged in Germany around 1930 and spread throughout Europe. It is a response to the crisis created by the two World Wars. It addresses fundamental problems of being, religion, and freedom, seeking to provide philosophical treatment through phenomenological tools. Its main representatives are Heidegger and Sartre, and its fundamental themes are:

1. Existence: The way of being of man. Existence is consciousness about freedom, and therefore, only man exists properly. Existence and man are synonyms.
2. Freedom: The fundamental principle of human beings.
3. Angst (Anxiety): The need for choice and the lack of fixed values that direct the election results in a fundamental mood: anxiety.

Heidegger's thought influenced hermeneutics. Existentialism, as a social movement, gave rise to a fashion in literary and dramatic works that invaded Europe in the 1960s. Plays by writers like Sartre, Albert Camus, and Samuel Beckett are examples of this influence.