Understanding Learning: Behavioral and Cognitive Theories

Classical Conditioning

In classical conditioning, an experiment involves strengthening a response through association. For instance, if a bell (conditioned stimulus) is presented without food (unconditioned stimulus), it will not lead to a lever press for food, as that is characteristic of operant conditioning. In classical conditioning, inconsistent pairing can severely impair learning and interfere with the association.

Key Terms in Classical Conditioning:

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Any stimulus that naturally evokes a regular and measurable physiological response for a sufficiently long period.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A stimulus originally neutral, meaning it did not produce a regular and measurable response before the experimental session. This stimulus is associated with the US and eventually leads to a conditioned response.
• Unconditioned Response (UR): The natural response triggered by the US.
• Conditioned Response (CR): An aspect or part of the UR that is elicited by the CS after the association between the CS and US has been learned.

Laws of Classical Conditioning:

1. Acquisition: The fundamental learning process by which a response becomes part of an organism's behavioral repertoire through repeated pairing of the CS and US.
2. Extinction: The process by which a conditioned response weakens and eventually disappears when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US.
3. Generalization:
   • Stimulus Generalization: A conditioned response to a specific stimulus tends to reappear in the presence of similar stimuli.
   • Response Generalization: Similar to stimulus generalization, but refers to the tendency for responses similar to the conditioned response to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus.
4. Discrimination: The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond only to the specific conditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner identified four operant procedures: two that strengthen behavior (increasing its likelihood), known as reinforcement, and two that weaken behavior (decreasing its likelihood), known as punishment.

Reinforcement:

The act of strengthening a behavior, thereby increasing the probability of it being repeated.

• Positive Reinforcement: Following a response with the presentation of something pleasant (e.g., giving a treat for good behavior).
• Negative Reinforcement: Following a response with the cessation or removal of something unpleasant (e.g., turning off an annoying alarm by pressing snooze).

Shaping:

Involves reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired complex behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement:

1. Continuous Reinforcement: The desired behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.
2. Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement: Reinforcement is not given every time the behavior occurs.
   • Interval Schedules: Reinforcement depends on the amount of time that has passed since the previous reinforcement (e.g., fixed-interval, variable-interval).
   • Ratio Schedules: Reinforcement depends on the number of responses given by the subject (e.g., fixed-ratio, variable-ratio).

Types of Operant Conditioning Outcomes:

1. Reward (Positive Reinforcement): Occurs when a behavior is followed by a positive reinforcer, increasing the likelihood of the behavior.
2. Punishment: An aversive stimulus follows a response, making the probability of that response's occurrence decrease.
3. Response Cost (Negative Punishment): When a desirable stimulus is removed following a behavior, decreasing the likelihood of that behavior.
4. Avoidance: When a response prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring.
5. Escape: When a response terminates an aversive event that is already present in the environment.

Triple Contingent Relationship:

This refers to the sequence of events involved in a learned behavior. It typically involves an antecedent event (environmental cue) that precedes a pattern of responses, which can include Cognitive, Emotional, and Motor responses.

Observational Learning (Social Learning Theory)

Albert Bandura (1981, 1986) introduced the term reciprocal determinism, which refers to the way in which the interaction between the environment, individual behavior, and cognitive factors ultimately influences how people behave in the world.

Processes of Learning by Observation:

1. Attentional Processes
2. Retention Processes
3. Motor Reproduction Processes
4. Motivational Processes

Observational learning also highlights the role of imitative reinforcing stimuli as a form of self-reinforcement.

Cognitive Learning Processes

The acquisition of knowledge involves more than the mere accumulation of information; it requires changing existing thought patterns. Processes like assimilation and integration, which involve incorporating new information into existing cognitive structures and adjusting those structures, take time and significant cognitive effort. Therefore, learning is not always fast, even among dedicated learners. Individual differences in cognitive processing should always be considered.

Insight Learning

Wolfgang Köhler (1927) described Insight as the sudden awareness of existing relationships between various elements that previously appeared to be independent. Later studies showed that prior learned experience, related to the elements involved in the problem, is an essential feature of insight.

Language Acquisition Theory:

Noam Chomsky (1978, 1986, 1991) proposed that an innate mechanism plays a central role in language learning, suggesting that human beings are born with an innate language ability that is enhanced through the process of maturation. However, these theories are still under review.