Understanding Language: Synonyms, Metaphors, and Differentiation

Synonym:

A synonym is a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another lexeme in the same language. We can distinguish 2 different sub-forms:

• Total synonyms: airman - pilot or car - automobile
• Partial synonyms: car – vehicle

Metaphor:

A figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them

Ex: 'Life is a journey.'

Differentiation:

The differentiation are the different reading of a sentence that is determined by the context.

Ex: I understand what you have said:

• I see your point.
• I can understand your language.

The Principle of Consistent Interpretation:

At the level of utterance meaning, a composite expression is always interpreted in such a way that its parts fit together and that the whole fits the context.

(One effect of interpretation in context is the elimination of self-contradictory readings.)

Syntactic Ambiguity:

An expression or utterance is ambiguous if it allows for more than one interpretation.

Sometimes the syntactic structure of a sentence can lead to different interpretation. That is syntactic ambiguity.

Ex: (In a conversation)

+ I wish to win the lottery someday.

- I wish

This 'I wish' can mean: 1) I wish you win the lottery. 2) I wish I win the lottery.

Lexical Field:

The lexical field is a group of lexemes which belong to a particular activity or area of specialist knowledge as the vocabulary of a scientist.

Simple and Gradable Antonyms:

The difference between simple and gradable antonyms is:

- Simple antonyms deal with the relation between words such that the negative of one implies the positive of the other. Ex: accept/ decline

- Gradable antonyms deal with the relationship between opposites where the opposite of one term does not necessarily imply the negative of the other. There are usually intermediate terms. Ex: bright/dull

Reverse and Converse:

- Reverse: relation between terms describing movement, where one term describes movement in one direction and the other the same movement in the opposite direction. Ex: sit down / stand up

- Converses: These are terms which describe a relation between two entities from alternative viewpoints. Ex: Borrow / Lend

Hyponomy and Taxonomic Sisters:

-Hyponymy: Word 'A' is a hyponym of word 'B' if and only if the meaning of 'B' is more general than the meaning of 'A'.

-Taxonomic sisters: Word 'A' is a taxonomic sister of word 'B' if word 'A' and word 'B' are hyponyms of all the same words (sisters in a hyponymic hierarchy)

Basic colour terms are taxonomic sisters

'Dog' 'cat' are not taxonomic sisters, they are hyponymy of animals.

(canine)(feline)

'dog' and 'cat' are taxonomic sisters (if we stick to 'basic vocabulary').

Meronymy:

'A' is a meronym of 'B', and 'B' a holonym of 'A', if and only if 'A' denotes constitutive parts of the kind of things that 'B' denotes. Term used to describe a part-hole relationship between lexical items.

Ex: a 'tire' is part of a 'car' a 'leaf' is part of a 'tree'

Member-collection:

Membership in a collection differs from componenthood in not requiring that members perform a particular function or possess a particular structural arrangement in relation to each other and to their wholes. Ex: A 'Tree' is part of a 'Forest'.

Portion-mass:

This is different from components of objects and members of collections in being 'homeomerous,' that is, having parts which are similar to each other and to the wholes which they comprise. Ex: A 'yard' is part of a 'mile'. Peace of paper.