Understanding Ethics and Morality: Core Concepts and Theories

Ethics and Morality: The Science of Conduct

The distinction between morality and ethics, though sometimes considered artificial, is based on its undoubted utility. Morality refers to the set of behaviors, norms, and values that govern a society at a given moment. Ethics, conversely, is the theoretical reflection on the behaviors, norms, and values that shape morality.

Understanding the Moral Act

Actions that are likely to be approved or rejected by society are considered acts of moral evaluation. For an act to be considered morally accountable, it must possess specific characteristics:

• An act is aware when the subject clearly knows what they are doing.
• An act is voluntary when the subject intends to do what they do and chooses from several options.

Individuals are held morally responsible for acts performed consciously, voluntarily, and that have direct or indirect social consequences.

Classes of Moral Judgments

Moral judgments can be categorized into different types:

• Factual Judgments: These state a fact or describe something without expressing a personal opinion.
• Value Judgments: These affirm or deny the value of something specific.
• Moral Value Judgments: These refer to rules that are moral, thereby evaluating a specific action or behavior based on ethical principles.

Circumstances Influencing Morality

Circumstances that may alter the morality of an act include:

• Reason: The underlying cause that moved one to act.
• Intention: The desired result to be achieved.
• Means: The tools or methods used for achieving the end.

Defining Moral Values

A moral value is the quality possessed by human actions that either advance or hinder the subject in the process of humanization.

Major Ethical Theories

Ethical theories provide frameworks for understanding moral principles and actions. Broadly, they can be categorized:

• Teleological Theories (Ethics of Purpose): These claim that humans have a specific purpose or end in life, and morality is defined by achieving that end.
• Deontological Theories (Ethics of Duty): These focus on duties or rules, seeking ways to ensure that moral standards are universal and mandatory, regardless of consequences.

Teleological Ethics: Pursuing Purpose and Happiness

Aristotle's Ethics: Virtue and Eudaimonia

Aristotle is a philosopher who has profoundly influenced Western thought. His ethics are teleological, aiming to achieve ultimate goals, such as happiness (eudaimonia), which he believed could be attained through virtue. For human beings, happiness is the pursuit of the activity of reason, an end in itself, not merely a means to something else. Moral virtue is the disposition that leads individuals to act in ways that achieve this desired state. Aristotle defines moral virtue as the mean between two extremes. He distinguished between two main types of virtues: intellectual virtues (e.g., wisdom, understanding) and ethical virtues (e.g., courage, temperance).

Epicurus: Pleasure, Prudence, and Ataraxia

Epicurus founded a philosophical school known as 'The Garden.' Epicureans sought pleasure through reason and prudence, believing that individuals could free themselves from three major fears: the fear of the gods, the fear of death, and the fear of pain. Happiness, for Epicurus, was found in the absence of worry (ataraxia) and physical pain (aponia). Virtue was considered the path to achieving pleasure and peace of mind. This state of tranquility, known as ataraxia, signifies a mood that is calm, carefree, and unruffled. Epicurus also outlined three types of pleasures:

• Natural and necessary (e.g., food, shelter)
• Natural and unnecessary (e.g., gourmet food, luxury)
• Unnatural and unnecessary (e.g., fame, power)

Socrates: Virtue and the Good Life

Socrates, in his dialogues, explored themes such as the superiority of living well, the appreciation of virtue, and the rejection of injustice. He believed that virtue is knowledge, and that no one does wrong knowingly.