Understanding Ethical Theories: From Aristotle to Modernity

What is an Ethical Theory?

Ethics is the philosophical reflection on morality. Ethical theories provide the rationale for explaining the moral behavior of individuals. These theories represent an effort of thought to understand the human condition and offer a coherent and profound explanation of our actions.

Various Ethical Theories

Ethical theories can be broadly divided into two groups:

• The ethics of conviction: These theories start with the question, "What is the end towards which we direct our actions?" They are interested in the purpose or the consequences that we enjoy if we follow a set of rules.
• Ethics of duty: These ethics do not ask what will make us happy, but what we are obligated to do as human beings endowed with reason. These theories are based on the question, "What is our duty?" They are not as interested in the consequences, but rather in what reason dictates as the most fair course of action.

Current Ethical Concerns

There are now ethical problems centered on our world, such as:

• Ecological ethics: Advocates for human conduct aimed at protecting the environment.
• Bioethics: Addresses the issue of limits on the application of advances and discoveries in the biological sciences and medicine.

There are also what are called postmodern ethics. Applied ethics involves thinking about the ethics of human social reality, the values underlying its action, and the rules governing its coexistence. It also addresses the most worrying problems of each era, such as environmental degradation and the advancement of biotechnology, which are key problems in our time.

Specific Ethical Theories

• The Eudaimonism of Aristotle: His ethical theory argues that the ultimate aim of humans is happiness (eudaimonia in Greek, thus the term eudaimonism to refer to his ethical theory). He maintains that all humans, by nature, seek to be happy, but obviously, few people achieve it because wrong decisions are made, and happiness is confused with ambition.
• Hedonism of Epicurus: Argues that the ultimate goal is to achieve happiness, understood as pleasure (hedone in Greek, hence the term hedonism). For Epicurus, human behavior is explained by the search for pleasure and the avoidance of pain. However, Epicurus also refers to spiritual pleasures and pains. The maximum pleasure for Epicurus is in the tranquility of mind and freedom from worry and suffering.
• Emotivism of David Hume: It is not possible to be happy alone; we need the happiness of those around us. Therefore, the concept of sympathy and closeness to others is important.
• The Utilitarianism of Bentham and John Stuart Mill: Bentham introduces the possibility of measuring pleasures, which differ in quantity and can be ordered. For his part, Stuart Mill added to Bentham's theory that pleasures differ not only in quantity but also in quality. Since the higher order of people in a society is to achieve these higher pleasures, it is necessary to develop and attend to individuals and their interests more deeply and permanently. This is man's spiritual progress. For Stuart Mill, democracy is the best form of government.