Tsarist Russia to Stalin: Revolution and Soviet State

Tsarist Russia in the Early Twentieth Century

Tsarist Russia in the early twentieth century suffered from political paralysis due to the system introduced to sustain Tsarism. The landed gentry concentrated land ownership in their hands, controlled senior management administration, and were supported by the Orthodox Church. By the end of the nineteenth century, a process of economic modernization was underway, with limited industrialization in many important areas.

The 1905 Revolution and its Aftermath

The 1905 Revolution was triggered by a series of strikes by workers in St. Petersburg, protesting against their poor living conditions and the Russian defeats in the Russo-Japanese War. In January 1905, a peaceful protest by workers at the Winter Palace ended tragically. The workers sought to submit a series of demands to end abuses, acknowledge rights and freedoms, and lay the basis for representative democracy. However, the Tsar's guards opened fire, causing many deaths on what became known as "Bloody Sunday." The harsh repression sparked international condemnation and catalyzed a revolutionary movement in Russia, leading to widespread strikes, uprisings, and riots.

The October Revolution and the Birth of the Soviet Union

An attempted coup by General Kornilov reinforced the Bolsheviks' position, leading them to launch a takeover. The Bolsheviks seized control of factories and many companies in major cities. Lenin, seeing an opportunity to seize power, returned to Petrograd from exile. Trotsky, as president of the Petrograd Soviet, coordinated operations through the newly formed Revolutionary Military Committee and prepared for the takeover. On the night of October 24-25, they seized telephone exchanges, banks, and railway stations. On October 25, troops surrounded the Winter Palace and arrested members of the government, except for Kerensky, who fled. Lenin and Trotsky formed a new government called the Council of People's Commissars, chaired by Lenin.

The NEP and the Birth of the USSR

The New Economic Policy (NEP) was a temporary solution, returning in part to a market economy. Private property was allowed in agriculture and small businesses, and a money economy was restored. The state retained control over banking, heavy industry, and foreign trade. The results were positive: agricultural expansion stopped famine, agricultural production increased, and industrial rationing was abolished. The NEP led to the emergence of prosperous peasants (kulaks) and the enrichment of traders and entrepreneurs.

The Political Offensive

Internal currents within the party were banned, and revolts were crushed by the army. Violent repression was exercised against all political opposition, civilian rights were curtailed, and critical intellectuals were imprisoned. The Church was also persecuted.

The USSR Under Stalin

Stalin's Dictatorship

Stalin achieved absolute mastery of the Communist Party and, through it, the Soviet state, imposing a totalitarian dictatorship based on terror and coercion.

Stalinist Dictatorship

Stalin's dictatorship was characterized by a cult of personality, where he was considered infallible and held absolute power. All dissent was suppressed and eliminated. A new constitution was adopted in 1936 that legalized the dictatorship, recognizing universal suffrage for men and women over 18. The "nomenklatura" held key positions within the Communist Party.

The Nationalization of the Economy

From 1928, Stalin abandoned the NEP and supported a solution favored by his former opponents: strengthening planning and control of the economy by the state. The government ordered collectivization, ending private property in the countryside and forcing peasants to join collective farms (kolkhozes) and state farms (sovkhozes).

Five-Year Plans

The Five-Year Plans aimed to create a powerful heavy industry capable of surpassing the most advanced capitalist countries and achieving economic and technological independence. To achieve these goals, economic policy was based on state planning. The government designed five-year plans to be completed in five years.