Totalitarian Regimes: Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany

Fascist Italy: Rise and Consolidation of Power

Following World War I, Italy faced severe challenges including war debts, high unemployment, and rampant inflation. These economic hardships generated significant social tensions, and traditional political parties proved ineffective in addressing them. Peasants occupied estates, and industrial workers organized widespread strikes.

Mussolini's Ascent to Power

• Support from Elites: The middle and upper classes, fearing a communist revolution, increasingly supported Benito Mussolini's Fascist Party.
• Suppression of Dissent: The Fascists responded to social unrest with brutal violence, attacking peasants, workers, and union leaders.
• Electoral Gains: In 1921, the Fascist Party won numerous seats in parliament, demonstrating growing political influence.
• March on Rome (1922): After taking over several towns, Fascist Blackshirts advanced on Rome. King Vittorio Emanuele III, fearing civil war, ceded the government to Mussolini.
• Consolidation of Authority: Mussolini was granted full powers for a year. He subsequently called elections and secured an absolute majority, effectively dismantling democratic institutions.

Characteristics of the Fascist Regime

• Campaign of Terror: The regime launched a systematic campaign of terror against all opposition.
• Suppression of Liberties: Political parties were banned, individual liberties disappeared, and strict censorship was established.
• Secret Police: The OVRA (Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism), Mussolini's secret police, was created to enforce political conformity.
• Economic Autarky: The state launched efforts to increase production and achieve economic self-sufficiency (autarky).

Nazi Germany: From Weimar to the Third Reich

Germany's defeat in World War I led to widespread unrest. The Spartacist Revolt, led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, attempted to establish a communist regime. The provisional government, however, brutally repressed this revolution.

Following these tumultuous events, elections were held for a constituent assembly, leading to the establishment of the Weimar Republic, Germany's first democratic government.

Hitler's Rise to Power and Nazi Ideology

Adolf Hitler founded the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), commonly known as the Nazi Party. His early attempt to seize power, the failed Beer Hall Putsch in 1923, resulted in his imprisonment.

During his incarceration, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle), outlining the core principles of Nazism. This ideology was based on totalitarian rule and a fervent belief in the superiority of the Aryan race. Hitler asserted that the Aryans were destined to dominate "inferior" peoples, including Slavs and, most notably, Jews, whom he blamed for Germany's post-war problems and perceived national humiliation.

Consolidation of Nazi Power (1933-1934)

After Hitler's release from prison, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg was elected President of the Weimar Republic. Germany was severely impacted by the Great Depression of 1929, leading to widespread fear of social unrest and a potential communist revolution. Industrialists, financiers, businessmen, and conservative groups, seeking stability, increasingly supported the Nazi Party and pressured Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor.

In January 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor, marking the beginning of the end for the Weimar Republic. The Nazis swiftly moved to dismantle democratic institutions and establish a totalitarian state:

• Reichstag Fire (February 27, 1933): The German parliament building caught fire. The Nazis immediately accused communists, using the incident as a pretext to persecute political opponents and ban all other political parties.
• Night of the Long Knives (June 30 – July 2, 1934): Hitler eliminated rivals within his own party, particularly leaders of the SA (Sturmabteilung or Brownshirts), who were seen as a threat to his authority. Many SA members were assassinated.
• Hindenburg's Death (August 1934): Upon President Hindenburg's death, Hitler merged the offices of Chancellor and President, proclaiming himself Führer und Reichskanzler (Leader and Chancellor of the Reich). He became the undisputed head of state, government, and the Nazi Party. This marked the official beginning of Hitler's dictatorship and the Third Reich.

Nazi Policies and the Path to War

Racial Purity and Persecution

Hitler was obsessed with the concept of racial purity. This obsession manifested in escalating persecution, particularly against Jewish people. The Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) in 1938 saw widespread violence, with many Jews killed and their property destroyed, foreshadowing the horrors of the Holocaust.

Economic Transformation and Autarky

The Nazi Party abolished trade unions and banned strikes, asserting complete control over the economy. They pursued a policy of autarky (economic self-sufficiency) through a massive program of public works, military rearmament and heavy industry expansion. This economic strategy not only aimed to reduce reliance on foreign trade but also prepared Germany for future military aggression.