St. Thomas Aquinas and the Rise of Scholasticism

Historical Context of St. Thomas Aquinas

The intellectual work of St. Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth century developed within the so-called Middle Ages (11th-15th century). This period shares with the High Middle Ages (5th-11th century) the feudal order and the estates that divide society, but it witnessed events involving the typical medieval order crisis and the emergence of the modern era.

The Rise of Cities and National States

The main fact to note is the appearance of towns or cities through economic development fostered by many technical advances, such as the windmill, water wheel, plow, and compass. Compared to the previous world, which revolved around the castle or monastery, cities began to play a greater role, and with them, a new class—the bourgeoisie—gradually became increasingly important.

At this time, national states began to outline themselves through the emergence of new monarchies that gradually brought together more power over the feudal lords, including:

• Britain
• France
• Spain (with the union of Castile and Aragon at the end of this period)

The Church and the Papacy, in particular, became independent of the political power of the Holy Roman Empire, becoming an independent power (the investiture controversy).

Cultural Shifts: Cathedrals and Universities

The process of change in the High Middle Ages emerges clearly in two cultural characteristics of the moment: the Cathedral and the University. The importance of the city and its new social class was reflected in the Cathedral, a symbol of urban art and the Gothic style, which was brighter and more stylized than the Romanesque of the High Middle Ages. Similarly, the figurative arts gained greater prominence through sculpture and painting, where perspective began to appear.

On the other hand, the University, where St. Thomas taught, became the cultural center of society, displacing the Monastery to some extent. This represented an opening of the world to knowledge that was not only religious but also secular.

Scholasticism and the Aristotelian Influence

It is in the University where Scholastic philosophy (the school) developed, of which St. Thomas is the highest representative. Scholasticism seeks to harmonize reason and faith, reconciling the Bible and the dogmas established by the Church with classical philosophy. This was achieved by examining religious and philosophical texts (lectio and quaestio) and addressing the fundamental issues of philosophy from a Christian perspective.

In contrast to the former Christian Platonism, Aristotelian interpretation began to dominate with the arrival of Aristotle's works at the University of Paris in the thirteenth century via Averroes. Therefore, starting with Arab philosophy—including Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes—and the Jewish philosopher Maimonides, a new era in philosophy was launched. This era was marked by a strong Aristotelian influence, with St. Thomas as its outstanding figure. Scholasticism dominated the intellectual scene during the late Middle Ages, from the crisis of the fourteenth century with the advent of nominalism and subsequently the Renaissance, to modern philosophy.